Shelly crustaceans belong to the lower crustaceans and form the order Ostracoda. The body of crustaceans is divided into the cephalothorax and abdomen. Copepoda are also widespread: cyclops and diaptomus, which belong to the subclass Maxillopoda. Daphnia, or water fleas, belong to the lower crustaceans, namely the cladocerans (suborder Cladocera in the order Phyllopoda).
The water donkey (Asellus aquaticus L.) is a representative of the class of crustaceans, belongs to the order of isopods (Isopoda), to the family of burros (Asellidae). Donkeys stay at the bottom of reservoirs, where they crawl between dead parts of plants and are carried out with a net. In these bags, clearly visible to the naked eye, the eggs develop and juveniles are formed in the form of fully formed crustaceans, generally similar to adults.
The number of eggs in one female varies greatly - from several dozen to a hundred or more. A young donkey reaches maturity on average within two months. Of these, the first two pairs are called rowing antennae, or antennae, and are used for movement. Like water fleas, there is a well-developed eye on the head, which shines through the thin flap of the shell.
On the left is a barnacle swimming. The arrows indicate the convergence and separation of the antennas. When crawling on the substrate, a pair of legs equipped with claws plays the role, and a second pair of antennae is also used. Some species have completely lost the ability to swim and are exclusively bottom dwellers. Ostracods feed on small organisms found in the mud, and very readily eat the corpses of small animals.
Like water fleas, barnacle crustaceans are capable of reproducing parthenogenetically for some time, and such reproduction alternates with sexual reproduction. Their larvae have the same ability. The body of the water flea (in most species) is enclosed in a transparent bivalve chitinous shell, both halves of which are fastened on the dorsal side and half-open on the ventral side.
Branched rowing antennae, or antennae, extend from the head; hence the name “cladocera”. They should be caught with a net made of fine mesh fabric. It is recommended to move the net along clean water without touching the bottom and without collecting aquatic plants in the bag. Here, this form is found in many lakes in northern and central Russia. The movements of water fleas can be observed even with the naked eye. The result is a series of successive jumps, which, indeed, bear some resemblance to the movement of a flea (hence the name “water flea”).
Cyclops (Cyclops coronatus). The abdomen bears six pairs of swimming legs and ends with two processes - the fork. In females, paired egg sacs can often be seen on the sides of the body. Copepods are found in a wide variety of water bodies, where they sometimes develop in huge numbers, especially in spring and autumn. The most primitive crustaceans belong to the subclass Branchiopoda.
Lower crustaceans
Daphnia, inhabitants of the water column, are often called water fleas, probably due to their small size and spasmodic mode of movement. Daphnia's legs are leaf-shaped, small, do not take any part in movement, but regularly serve for feeding and breathing. An even smaller owner of a brownish spherical shell - Chydorus sphaericus - can be found in the water column and among coastal thickets.
Their body consists of a head, articulated thorax and abdomen. The main organs of movement are powerful antennae and pectoral legs bearing swimming setae. The legs work synchronously, like oars. This is where the common name for crustaceans comes from - “copepods”. Diaptomuses, like daphnia, are completely peaceful animals. The elongated body of the crustacean is translucent and colorless, they need to be invisible to predators. Among them there are large forms. More than 40 thousand species of crustaceans are known.
The cephalothorax consists of segments of the head and chest, merging into a common, usually undivided body section. The abdomen is often dissected. The first 2 pairs are represented by segmented antennae; These are the so-called antennules and antennae. Crustaceans are characterized by a bibranched limb structure. Due to the evolution in aquatic environment crustaceans have developed organs of water respiration - gills. They often appear as outgrowths on the limbs.
The meaning of crustaceans
Crustaceans, with rare exceptions, are dioecious. A nauplius larva emerges from the egg with an unsegmented body, 3 pairs of limbs and one unpaired eye. Lower crayfish live in both fresh waters and seas. They are important in the biosphere, being an essential part of the diet of many fish and cetaceans.
The antennules are single-branched, the antennae and legs of the thoracic segments are biramous. The antennules reach especially great lengths; they are longer than the body. Scattering them widely, diaptomuses float in the water, the thoracic limbs cause the jerky movements of the crustaceans. The oral limbs are in constant oscillatory motion and drive particles suspended in water towards the mouth opening. The color of cyclops depends on the type and color of the food they eat (gray, green, yellow, red, brown).
Class Crustaceans (Crustacea)
The Crustacea class includes a wide variety of arthropods. This includes, often not similar friend animals like crabs and woodlice, crayfish and shrimp, hermit crabs and carp lice, lobsters and water fleas... And since adult crustaceans are very diverse in form, give them brief description, clearly distinguishing them from other groups of animals is almost impossible. Therefore, evolutionary (genetic) relationships between different representatives of the class are established only by the characteristics of their larval development. And this, in turn, usually includes a complex metamorphosis, in which only the first larval stage - nauplius - is common to all crustaceans. But some others, and in some cases all of them, including the first one, may be absent, and then a copy of an adult animal immediately hatches from the fertilized egg, but only a miniature one...
Some edible and harmful species of crustaceans have been known to man since ancient times, but most representatives of this class are known only to specialists. As it turns out, crustacean animals are among the most numerous on our planet. Currently, scientists have described more than 25,000 of their species. Moreover, most species of crustaceans live in the seas and oceans, so they are sometimes figuratively called “sea insects” for their abundance and diversity. However, many species of crustaceans also live in fresh waters and on land. Therefore, they can practically be found in all bodies of water: under ice in the polar regions, and in hot springs with temperatures up to 50 ° C, and in deserts, and at depths of up to 6 km, and on the tops of tropical trees.
The economic importance of crustaceans is also great. Wherein great importance have crabs, lobsters, crayfish and shrimp, which are directly consumed by humans. But numerous small forms that float en masse near the surface of reservoirs as part of zooplankton and are often barely visible to the naked eye, form the main link in a number of food chains. It is these tiny crustaceans that are the link between microscopic planktonic algae and fish, whales and other large game animals. Without small crustaceans, which transform plant cells into easily digestible animal food, the existence of most representatives of aquatic fauna would become almost impossible.
Among crustaceans there are many species that are harmful to humans, which in one way or another cause damage to a person’s economy or his health. Thus, boring forms of crustaceans, such as the woodworm, make passages in wooden port structures and other underwater buildings. On the bottoms of ships, sea acorns and barnacles form thick foulings that interfere with navigation. Some species of crabs, crayfish and some other crustaceans are found in the tropics (and Far East Russia) are carriers of human diseases, and other crustaceans, such as wood lice and shield bugs, often harm vegetation, in particular rice crops, or farmed marine species.
Lower Crustaceans
Subclass Gill-footed
The most primitive. These small crustaceans have leaf-shaped legs and are used equally for movement and breathing. They also create a current of water that carries food particles to the mouth. Their eggs easily tolerate drying out and wait in the soil for the new rainy season. Artemia is an interesting branchiopod: it can live in salt lakes with a salt concentration of up to 300 g/l, and in fresh water dies after 2-3 days.
Subclass Maxillopods (jaws)
Representatives of the barnacle order are amazing: sea acorns and barnacles. These sea crayfish switched to a sedentary lifestyle in houses made of limestone plates. The larva is a typical nauplius, sinks to the bottom and attaches itself with antennules. The antennules and the entire anterior part of the head turns into an organ of attachment (a long fleshy stalk in sea ducks, or a flat wide sole in sea acorns), the antennae and compound eyes atrophy, the thoracic legs extend into long two-branched “antennae”, driving food to the mouth.
Description
The body of crustaceans is divided into the following sections: head, thoracic and abdominal. In some species, the head and thorax are fused together (cephalothorax). Crustaceans have an external skeleton (exoskeleton). The cuticle (outer layer) is often reinforced with calcium carbonate, which provides additional structural support (especially important for larger species).
Many species of crustaceans have five pairs of appendages on the head (these include: two pairs of antennae (antennae), a pair of lower jaws (maxilla) and a pair of upper jaws (mandibles, or mandibles)). Compound eyes are located at the end of the stalks. The thorax contains several pairs of pereopods (walking legs), and the segmented abdomen contains pleopods (abdominal legs). The posterior end of the body of crustaceans is called the telson. Large species Crustaceans breathe using gills. Small species use the surface of the body to carry out gas exchange.
Reproduction
Most species of crustaceans are heterosexual and reproduce sexually, although some groups, such as barnacles, remipedians and cephalocariids, are hermaphrodites. Life cycle crustaceans begin with a fertilized egg, which is either released directly into the water or attached to the genitals or legs of the female. After hatching from an egg, crustaceans go through several stages of development before becoming adults.
food chain
Crustaceans occupy a key place in the sea and are among the most widespread animals on Earth. They feed on organisms such as phytoplankton, in turn crustaceans become food for larger animals such as fish, and some crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters and shrimp are very popular food for humans.
Dimensions
Crustaceans come in a variety of sizes from microscopic water fleas and crustaceans to the giant Japanese spider crab, which reaches a mass of about 20 kg and has legs 3-4 m long.
Nutrition
In the process of evolution, crustaceans have acquired a wide range of feeding methods. Some species are filter feeders, extracting plankton from the water. Other species, especially large ones, are active predators that capture and tear apart their prey using powerful appendages. There are also scavengers, especially among small species, feeding on the decaying remains of other organisms.
First crustaceans
Crustaceans are well represented in the fossil record. The first representatives of crustaceans date back to the Cambrian period and are represented by fossils mined in the Burgess Shale formation, located in Canada.
Classification
Crustaceans include the following 6 classes:
- Branchiopods (Branchiopoda);
- Cephalocaridae (Cephalocarida);
- Higher crayfish (Malacostraca);
- Maxillopods (Maxillopoda);
- Shelly (Ostracoda);
- Comb-footed (Remipedia).
Latin name Crustacea
Characteristics of crustaceans
The gill-breathing subphylum contains one class of crustaceans (Crustacea), which is richly represented in the modern fauna. It is very typical for them to have two pairs of head antennae: antennules and antennae.
Dimensions crustaceans range from fractions of a millimeter in microscopic planktonic forms to 80 cm in higher crustaceans. Many crustaceans, especially planktonic forms, serve as food for commercial animals - fish and whales. Other crustaceans themselves serve as commercial fish.
Body dismemberment
The body of crustaceans is segmented, but, unlike annelids, their segmentation is heteronomous. Similar segments that perform the same function are grouped into departments. In crustaceans, the body is divided into three sections: the head (cephalon), chest (thorax) and abdomen (abdomen). The head of crustaceans is formed by an acron corresponding to the head lobe - the annelid prostomium, and four body segments fused with it. Accordingly, the head section bears five pairs of head appendages, namely: 1) antennules - single-branched tactile antennae innervated from the brain (homologous to the palps of the rings); 2) antennae, or second antennae, originating from the first pair of two-branched limbs of the parapodial type; 3) mandibles, or mandibles - upper jaws; 4) first maxillae, or first pair of lower jaws; 5) second maxillae, or second pair of lower jaws.
However, not all crustaceans have the acron and the four segments that form the head, fused together. In some lower crustaceans, the acron is fused with the antennal segment, but is not fused with the independent mandibular segment, but both maxillary segments are fused together. The anterior section of the head, formed by the acron and a segment of the antennae, is called the primary head - protocephalon. In many crustaceans (in addition to the formation of the primary head - protocephalon), all jaw segments (mandibular and both maxillary) also merge to form the jaw section - gnatocephalon. This section fuses with a greater or lesser number of thoracic segments (in crayfish with three thoracic segments), forming the maxillary thorax - gnathothorax.
In many, the head consists of five completely fused parts: an acron and four body segments (scuttlefishes, cladocerans, some amphipods and isopods), and in some the head segments merge with one or two more thoracic segments (copepods, isopods, amphipods).
In many, the dorsal coverings of the head form a protrusion at the back, more or less covering the thoracic region, and sometimes the entire body. This is how the cephalothorax shield, or carapace, of crayfish and other decapods is formed, and the transverse groove on this shell indicates the boundary between the fused jaw and thoracic sections of the body. The carapace grows onto the thoracic segments. Sometimes it can be compressed from the sides, forming a gable shell that hides the entire body (shell crustaceans).
The thoracic segments, as indicated, can fuse with the head (1-3, even 4 segments), forming the cephalothorax. All thoracic segments bear limbs, the functions of which are not limited to motor and respiratory. Thus, in crayfish, the 3 first pairs of thoracic limbs turn into jaws that supply food to the mouth.
The abdominal segments are usually movably connected to each other. Only higher crustaceans have limbs on their abdominal segments; the rest have abdomen without them. The abdominal region ends in a telson, which does not bear limbs and is homologous to the pygidium of polychaetes.
While all crustaceans have the same number of head segments (5), the number of thoracic and abdominal segments is very different. Only in higher crayfish (decapods, isopods, etc.) their number is constant: pectorals - 8, abdominals - 6 (rarely 7). In the rest, the number of thoracic and abdominal segments ranges from 2 (shells) to 50 or more (shells).
Limbs
The limbs of the head are represented in five pairs. The antennules corresponding to the palps of the rings retain mainly the functions of the sense organs of touch and smell in crustaceans. The antennules of crayfish consist of main segments and two segmented branches.
The antennae are the first pair of limbs of parapodial origin. In the larvae of many crustaceans they are bibranched, and in most adult crustaceans they become single-branched or retain only a rudiment of the second branch (exopodite). Antennas perform mainly a tactile function.
The mandibles make up the upper jaws. They correspond in origin to the second pair of limbs. In most crayfish, the mandibles have been transformed into hard, jagged chewing plates (mandibles) and have completely lost their bibranched character. It is believed that the chewing plate corresponds to the main part of the limb - the protopodite. In crayfish (and some others), a small three-segmented palp sits on the chewing plate - the remnant of one of the branches of the limb.
The first and second maxillae, or first and second pairs of mandibles, are usually less reduced limbs than the mandibles. In decapods, the maxillae consist of two main segments, forming a protopodite, and a short, unbranched palp. With the help of the chewing plate of the protopodite, the maxillae perform a chewing function.
The thoracic limbs of representatives of different orders are arranged differently. In crayfish, the first three pairs of thoracic limbs are transformed into so-called maxillopods or maxillopods. The crayfish's jaws, especially the second and third pairs, retain a fairly strong two-branched structure (endopodite and exopodite). The second and third pairs also bear gills, and their movement causes water currents to flow through the gill cavity. Therefore, they perform a respiratory function. However, their main function is to hold food and move it towards the mouth. Finally, the endopodite of the third pair serves as a kind of toilet device, with the help of which the antennules and eyes are cleaned of foreign particles adhering to them.
However, in many other crustaceans, the first three pairs of thoracic limbs perform primarily a locomotor function.
A peculiar change in the thoracic limbs is their adaptation to grasping, for example, the claws of decapod crayfish. The claw is formed by two segments of the limb: the penultimate segment, which has a long outgrowth, and the last segment articulated with it, forming the other side of the claw. The fifth to eighth pairs of thoracic limbs of crayfish (and other decapods) are typical walking legs. They are single-branched, and their basal part (protopodite) and endopodite are preserved. The exopodite is completely reduced. Bibranching of the thoracic limbs is observed much more often in lower crustaceans.
Abdominal limbs, as already mentioned, are absent in many groups of crustaceans. In higher crustaceans they are usually less developed than pectorals, but more often they retain bibranching; in many crayfish they are equipped with gills, simultaneously performing a respiratory function. In crayfish, the abdominal legs - pleopods - are changed in males. Their first and second pairs represent the copulatory apparatus. In females, the first pair is vestigial. The second is the fifth pair of abdominal legs in females and the third is the fifth pair in males of the swimming type. They are bibranched and consist of a few segments, abundantly covered with hairs. The laid eggs, which they incubate, are attached to these legs of female crayfish, and then the hatched crustaceans rest on the female’s legs for some time.
The last, sixth pair of abdominal legs - uropods - is peculiarly modified in crayfish and some other crayfish. Both branches of each leg are transformed into flat swimming blades, which, together with the flat last abdominal segment - the telson - form a fan-shaped swimming apparatus.
Crabs often have an interesting protective adaptation - spontaneous throwing of their limbs, which sometimes occurs even with very slight irritation. This autotomy (self-mutilation) is associated with a strong ability to regenerate. Instead of a lost limb, a new one develops.
Skeleton and musculature
The chitinized cover is impregnated with calcium carbonate. This gives greater rigidity to the skeleton.
The mobility of the body and limbs in the presence of a hard cover is ensured by the fact that chitin covers the body and limbs with a layer of unequal thickness and hardness. Each abdominal segment of the crayfish is covered with hard plates of chitin on the dorsal and ventral sides. The dorsal shield is called the tergite, the ventral shield is called the sternite. At the boundaries between the segments, thin and soft chitin forms folds that straighten when the body is bent in the opposite direction. A similar adaptation is observed on the joints of the limbs.
The internal skeleton of the crayfish serves as an attachment site for various muscles. In many places, especially on the ventral side of the thoracic region, the skeleton forms a complex system of crossbars that grow into the body and form the so-called endophragmatic skeleton, which also serves as a site for muscle attachment.
All kinds of bristles and hairs covering the body of the crayfish and especially its limbs are outgrowths of the chitinous cover.
Digestive system
The digestive system is represented by the intestine, consisting of three main sections: the foregut, midgut and hindgut. The foregut and hindgut are of ectodermic origin and are lined from the inside with a chitinous cuticle. Crustaceans are characterized by the presence of a paired digestive gland, usually called the liver. The digestive system reaches its greatest complexity in decapods.
The foregut of crayfish is represented by the esophagus and stomach. The mouth is located on the ventral side, and a short esophagus extends from it upward, towards the dorsal side. The latter leads to the stomach, which consists of two sections - cardiac and pyloric. The cardial, or chewing, section of the stomach is lined from the inside with chitin, forming in its rear part a complex system of crossbars and protrusions equipped with teeth. This formation is called the “gastric mill”; it ensures the final grinding of food. In the front part of the cardiac section there are white rounded calcareous formations - millstones. The calcium carbonate that accumulates in them is used during molting to saturate the new chitinous cover with it. Food crushed in the cardial section of the stomach enters through a narrow passage into the second, pyloric section of the stomach, in which food particles are pressed and filtered out. This part of the stomach ensures that only highly crushed food enters the midgut and digestive gland. It must be borne in mind that in the stomach not only the mechanical grinding of food occurs, but partly its digestion, since the secretion of the digestive gland penetrates into the stomach. The remaining uncrushed larger particles of food, due to the special structure of the pyloric part of the stomach, pass directly into the hindgut, bypassing the midgut, and are excreted.
The midgut of crayfish is very short. It makes up approximately 1/20 of the entire length of the intestine. Digestion and absorption of food occurs in the midgut. Most of the liquid food from the stomach goes directly into the digestive gland (liver), which opens with two openings at the border of the midgut and the pyloric part of the stomach. Digestive enzymes that digest proteins, fats and carbohydrates are not only excreted into the midgut and stomach, but are also used in the liver tubes themselves. Liquid food penetrates these tubes, and here its final digestion and absorption occurs.
In many crustaceans, the digestive gland is much less developed (for example, in daphnia), and in some it is completely absent (in Cyclops). In such crustaceans the midgut is relatively longer.
The hindgut is a straight tube lined with chitin on the inside and opening anus on the ventral side of the telson.
Respiratory system
Most crustaceans have special respiratory organs - gills. By origin, the gills develop from the epipodites of the limbs and, as a rule, are located on the protopodites of the thoracic, less often, abdominal legs. In a simpler case, the gills are plates sitting on the protopodite (amphipods, etc.); in a more advanced form, the gills are a rod seated with thin gill filaments. The lacunae of the body cavity - the myxocoel - extend inside the gills. Here they form two channels, separated by a thin partition: one is inflowing, the other is outflowing.
In decapods, including crayfish, the gills are placed in special gill cavities formed by the lateral folds of the cephalothorax shield. In crayfish, the gills are arranged in three rows: the lower row is located on the protopodites of all thoracic limbs, the middle row is on the places where the limbs are attached to the cephalothorax, and the upper row is on the side wall of the body. In crayfish, 3 pairs of jaws and 5 pairs of walking legs are equipped with gills. Water constantly circulates in the gill cavities, entering through openings at the base of the limbs, in places where the folds of the cephalothorax shield loosely adhere to them, and exits at its anterior edge. The movement of water is caused by fast oscillatory movements second maxillae and partly the first pair of maxillae.
Crustaceans that transitioned to terrestrial existence have special adaptations that ensure respiration atmospheric air. In land crabs these are modified gill cavities, in woodlice they are limbs penetrated by a system of air tubes.
Many small forms (copepods, etc.) do not have gills and respiration occurs through the integument of the body.
Circulatory system
Due to the presence of a mixed body cavity - myxocoel - the circulatory system is not closed and blood circulates not only through the blood vessels, but also in the sinuses, which are parts of the body cavity. The degree of development of the circulatory system varies and depends on the development of the respiratory organs. It is most developed in higher crustaceans, especially in decapods, which, in addition to the heart, have a rather complex system of arterial vessels. In other crustaceans, the vascular system is much less developed. Daphnia has no arterial vessels at all and the circulatory system is represented only by the heart in the form of a vesicle. Finally, copepods and shellfish also lack a heart.
The heart of crustaceans, tubular or sac-shaped, is located on the dorsal side of the body in the pericardial cavity - the pericardium (the pericardium of crustaceans is not associated with the coelom, but is a section of the myxocoel). Blood enters the pericardium from the gills, sufficiently enriched with oxygen. The heart communicates with the pericardium through paired slit-like openings equipped with valves - ostia. Crayfish have 3 pairs of ostia; crayfish with a tubular heart can have many pairs. When the heart expands (diastole), blood enters it through the ostia from the pericardium. During contraction (systole) of the heart, the valves of the ostia close and blood is driven from the heart through the arterial vessels to various parts of the body. Thus, the pericardial portion of the myxocoel performs the function of the atrium.
In crayfish, the arterial vascular system is quite developed. Three vessels extend forward from the heart to the head and antennae. Back from the heart there is one vessel carrying blood to the abdomen, and two arteries flowing into the lower abdominal vessels. These vessels branch into smaller ones, and eventually the blood enters the myxocoel sinuses. Having given oxygen to the tissues and received carbon dioxide, the blood is collected in the abdominal venous sinus, from where it is sent through the afferent vessels to the gills, and from the gills through the efferent vessels to the pericardial region of the myxocoel.
Excretory system
The excretory organs of crustaceans are modified metanephridia. In crayfish and other higher crustaceans, the excretory organs are represented by one pair of glands located in the head of the body and opening outward through openings at the base of the antennae. They are called antennal glands. The gland is a complex convoluted capsule with glandular walls, consisting of three sections: white, transparent and green. At one end the canal is closed by a small coelomic sac, which is a remnant of the coelom. At the other end, the channel expands into the bladder and then opens outward. The excretory glands of crayfish are also called green glands due to their greenish color. Substances released from the blood diffuse into the walls of the canal, accumulate in the bladder and are released out.
Other crustaceans also have one pair of excretory glands of a similar structure, but they open outward not at the base of the antennae, but at the base of the second pair of maxillae. Therefore they are called maxillary glands. In crustacean larvae developing with metamorphosis, the location of the excretory organs is reversed, namely: the larvae of higher crustaceans have maxillary glands, and the remaining larvae have antennal glands. Apparently, this is explained by the fact that initially the ancestors of crustaceans had two pairs of excretory organs - both antennal and maxillary. Subsequently, the evolution of crayfish followed different paths and led to the fact that in higher crustaceans only the antennal glands were preserved, and in the rest only the maxillary glands. Proof of the correctness of this point of view is the presence in some crustaceans, namely, in marine crustaceans, nebalia from primitive higher crustaceans, as well as in barnacles from lower crustaceans, two pairs of excretory glands.
Nervous system
Central nervous system Most crustaceans are represented by the ventral nerve cord and are very close to the annelid nervous system. It consists of the suprapharyngeal ganglion (paired in origin), forming the brain, connected to the subpharyngeal ganglion by peripharyngeal connectives. From the subpharyngeal ganglion comes a double abdominal nerve trunk, forming a pair of contiguous ganglia in each segment.
In higher crustaceans, the nervous system reaches a relatively high level of development (brain structure), while in other groups of crustaceans it is more primitive. An example of the most primitive structure is the nervous system of branchiopods, which have a cephalic ganglion, peripharyngeal connectives and two relatively widely spaced nerve trunks extending from them. On the trunks in each segment there are small ganglion thickenings connected by double transverse commissures. In other words, the nervous system of these crayfish is built according to the ladder type.
In most crustaceans, the longitudinal nerve trunks converge, the paired ganglia of which merge together. In addition, as a result of the fusion of segments and the formation of body parts, their ganglia merge.
This process is primarily associated with the formation of the head (cephalization). Thus, the brain of crayfish (and other decapods) is formed by the cephalic ganglion itself with two sections - the antennular and the antennal attached to it (the first pair of ganglia of the abdominal nerve chain, innervating the antennae). The subpharyngeal ganglion was formed by the fusion of the following 6 pairs of ganglia of the ventral nerve chain: the ganglia innervating the mandibles, two pairs of maxillae and three pairs of maxillae. This is followed by 11 pairs of ganglia of the abdominal chain - 5 thoracic and 6 abdominal.
On the other hand, fusion of ganglia may also occur due to shortening of the body or small size in a particular group of crustaceans. Particularly interesting in this regard is the fusion of all the ganglia of the ventral chain into one large node observed in crabs.
Sense organs
Crustaceans have organs of touch, organs of chemical sense (smell), organs of balance and organs of vision.
Reproduction
With rare exceptions (barnacles), all crustaceans are dioecious, and many have quite pronounced sexual dimorphism. Thus, the female crayfish is distinguished by a noticeably wider abdomen and, as we know, by the structure of the first and second pairs of abdominal legs. In many lower crustaceans, males are significantly smaller than females.
Crustaceans reproduce exclusively sexually. In a number of groups of lower crustaceans (scutellites, cladocerans, shellfishes) parthenogenesis and alternation of parthenogenetic and bisexual generations take place.
