Before identifying a plant, it should be carefully studied. Analysis of the external structure of the plant and its organs is accompanied by some measurements and dissection of flowers, seeds and fruits, for which you need to use a ruler, dissecting needles, scalpel or razor blades, hand magnifying glasses with a magnification of ´ 3, ´ 6, ´ 10. In some cases it is necessary binocular loupe with higher magnification.
Analyzing the morphological characteristics of plants requires a certain skill. To purchase it, it is necessary to make a detailed description of 10–15 plants from different families of the Angiosperm division ( Magnoliophyta, or Angiospermae). To complete the descriptions, you should take herbaceous plants. This is due to the fact that plant trait analysis and plant descriptions are performed before their definitions are based on samples collected on excursions, while descriptions of woody plants should be carried out mainly on excursions. For woody plants, such characteristics as the architecture of the crown and the nature of the growth of shoots in different parts of it, the characteristics of the crust and periderm on branches of different ages, etc. are important. In addition, a complete description of many woody plants of the temperate zone requires observation of them throughout the growing season, since They tend to bloom early before the leaves bloom.
The morphological description is carried out according to the following plan:
- plant name(Latin and Russian), systematic affiliation (family name – Latin and Russian);
Duration life cycle(annual, biennial, perennial), life form(plant tap-root, cluster-root, shoot-root, rhizomatous, turf, bulbous, etc.), general height or length for ground-creeping forms and vines;
Structure root system: taproot, fibrous, fringed, etc., its placement in the soil (surface, deep, tiered), morphology of roots in the root system (diameter, color, length, degree of branching and other characteristics), the presence of specialized (for example, retracting) and modified roots, other features of root systems;
Structure underground organs shoot origin in perennial grasses: caudexes, rhizomes, tubers, bulbs, turnip-like organs (“root crops”), corms, underground stolons: their size, color and surface character, shape, depth of location in the soil, presence, number and location of adventitious roots and other features;
Structure aboveground shoots: quantity, position relative to the soil level, direction of growth, type of branching of shoots, location of lateral shoots on the mother and their number, type of shoots along the length of internodes (elongated, shortened, semi-rosette, rosette), leaf arrangement and other features;
Structure stems: presence of edges, wings, cross-sectional shape, diameter, nature of pubescence, color and other features;
Structure leaves: complex or simple, palmate or pinnate, petiolate or sessile; parts of the leaf and their structure, the shape of the leaf blades and their bases, edges, apices, types of leaf blades according to the degree of dissection, the presence and nature of pubescence, other features;
Structure inflorescences: flowers solitary or in inflorescences (simple, complex), type of inflorescences according to the method of branching (racemose, cymose, thyrsoid) and the nature of foliage (frontose, frondulose, bracteosous, glabrous), types of individual inflorescences (tassel, umbel, spike, basket, etc. .d.), number of flowers, length of pedicels, other structural features of inflorescences;
Structure flowers, their formula and diagram: all parts of the flower are consistently analyzed and described - the receptacle, perianth, androecium and gynoecium, nectaries (their shape, size, number, color, smell, the presence or absence of fusion of the same and different parts of the flower parts of the flower), their type symmetry and other morphological features;
Structure seeds And fruits: shape, size, color of fruits; types of fruits - genetic (depending on the structure of the gynoecium: apocarpous, syncarpous, lysicarpous, paracarpous) and according to the structure and consistency of the pericarp, the number of seeds; methods of opening fruits; the presence of infructescences, their structure, other structural features of seeds and fruits;
Information about biological features plants: flowering time, method of pollination, methods of spreading diaspores, etc.;
Information about ecological relevance plants to certain habitats (lighting, moisture conditions, soils, etc.), plant communities, frequency of occurrence in the area where the practice is carried out.
For the description, species of those plants are selected that, at a given moment in the growing season, have all the organs necessary to compile a complete description. Biological and environmental information should be based on the results own observations during excursions. Morphological analysis and description of plants is accompanied by sketches of the external appearance of plants and more detailed drawings of their important parts - flowers and their parts, fruits, etc.
When analyzing the characteristics of plants to compile their descriptions, it is necessary to use educational and reference literature on plant morphology, dictionaries of botanical terms, and atlases on plant morphology. Often brief morphological reference books are available in plant guides.
As an example of a morphological description, the characteristics of a widespread weedy plant, Greater Celandine, is given, often found in forests, gardens, shelterbelts, city parks, near housing, in vegetable gardens, and in other more or less shady weedy places (Fig. 13).
« Chelidonium majus L. – Greater celandine.
Family Papaveraceae Juss . - Poppy.
A perennial herbaceous short-rhizome plant with a height of 25 to 80 cm. The entire plant is covered with sparse hairs or bare, its aerial parts contain a pungent-smelling orange milky sap.
The root system is taprooted, with numerous lateral roots on the taproot. The rhizome is short, vertical, bearing vegetative shoots and renewal buds.
Aboveground shoots are erect, semi-rosette, branched above the middle of the elongated part of the shoot. The stems are green and round. Leaf-
Figure 13 – Greater celandine Chelidonium majus L. (photo by T.A. Karaseva)
spiral arrangement (alternate).
The leaves are green above, bluish below, from 7 to 20 cm long and from 2.5 to 9 cm wide. The lower leaves of the shoots are collected in a rosette and have petioles from 2 to 10 cm in length; the stem leaves on the elongated middle part of the shoot are sessile. All leaves are unpaired, pinnately dissected, with almost oppositely spaced pairs of lateral segments, the size of which increases towards the largest unpaired terminal segment. Leaf segments are from 1.5 to 6 cm in length and from 1 to 3 cm in width, round or round-ovate, at the base with an additional lobe in the form of an eye, descending to the leaf axis, entire or sometimes deeply incised on the lower side. The terminal segment of the leaf is more or less deeply incised into 3 lobes, less often whole. Along the edges, the leaf segments are unevenly crenate-toothed.
Inflorescence - umbrellas of 3-7 flowers at the ends of the main shoot and its lateral branches - paracladia. Flowers on pedicels from 0.5 to 2 cm in length.
The flowers are regular (actinomorphic), with a double-petalled perianth. The receptacle is punctate. The calyx consists of two convex, round, yellowish-greenish sepals that fall off when the flowers bloom. The corolla is yellow, with 4 rounded petals 10–15 mm in diameter. The stamens are numerous, half as long as the petals. The pistil is approximately equal in length to the stamens, with a linear superior ovary and an sessile, notched or lobed stigma. The gynoecium is paracarpous and consists of two carpels.
Flower formula: * K 2 C 4 A ¥ G (2) .
The fruit is a long pod-like capsule with one nest inside. The box is opened with two flaps from bottom to top. Its length is from 3 to 6 cm, width - from 2 to 3 mm. The seeds are about 1.5 mm long and 1 mm wide, numerous, ovoid, black-brown, shiny, with a white comb-like appendage, located on the walls of the ovary in 2 rows. Pedicels during fruiting lengthen to 5 cm.
Flowers are pollinated by insects. Blooms in V – VII, fruits ripen in VI – VIII. Seeds are dispersed by ants (myrmecochores).
Inhabits weedy places in floodplain forests in the river valley. Kalitvy between the village. Kirsanovka and the Marshinsky farm, in forest belts, gardens and vegetable gardens in the village. Kirsanovka. Prefers shaded and moist areas with rich chernozem soils. It grows in groups, sometimes forming large clumps and thickets. The milky sap is highly poisonous. »
The choice of plants for writing descriptions should not be random. Since one of the goals of educational practice is to consolidate knowledge of plant taxonomy, for detailed analysis it is necessary to select plants from the leading families of the local flora. For the south of the European part of Russia these are the following: legumes ( Fabaceae), borage ( Boraginaceae), cloves ( Caryophyllaceae), buckwheat ( Polygonaceae), Lamiaceae ( Lamiaceae), cereals ( Poaceae), umbrella ( Apiaceae), cruciferous ( Brassicaceae), goosefoot ( Chenopodiaceae), norichnikovye ( Scrophulariaceae), sedges ( Cyperaceae), pink ( Rosaceae), Compositae ( Asteraceae).
When starting practice, you should repeat the characteristics of the leading families from the educational literature, clarify and master all the most important features of the structure of the vegetative and reproductive organs of the plants belonging to them. Having carefully analyzed the main characteristics of families in their specific representatives, in the end it is possible to accurately determine the belonging of plants to them on botanical excursions, without resorting to the help of identifiers.
In subsequent work on identifying plants, after acquiring a certain skill in analyzing their morphological characteristics, detailed descriptions can be abandoned. However, preliminary morphological analysis and establishment of the main distinctive features of all plant organs is an indispensable condition for successful identification.
Morphological (from the Greek morphe - form, logos - teaching) description is associated with the study of the structure, shape of an object and it is convenient to start with the elemental composition, then connections, then structure and finally compositional properties.
Elements. Let us recall that in this case an element is understood as a part of the system into which the description does not penetrate. The elemental composition can be homogeneous (contain the same elements), heterogeneous (contain different elements) and mixed. Sameness does not mean complete identity and only determines the proximity of basic properties.
According to their purpose (properties), information, energy and material elements are distinguished.
Information elements are designed to receive, remember and transform information. This transformation may consist of changing the type of energy that carries information (electromagnetic energy of light rays carrying an image - into electrical energy using a kinescope, eye...), changing the method of encoding information (musical "code" - into electrical "code" impulses), in information compression (feature selection)
and finally, decision making (recognition, choice of behavior).
Information transformations can be reversible and irreversible. Transformations are reversible if they are not associated with the loss (creation) of information. The accumulation (memorization) of information is a reversible transformation if there is no loss of information during storage time. Decision making involves loss of information. The effectiveness of the information function is determined by the introduced distortions and losses of information, which negatively affect the operation of other elements and the object as a whole.
The functions of energy elements are related to the transformation of energy; the task of transformation is to produce the energy necessary for an object in a form in which it can be consumed by other elements. The main characteristic here is the efficiency. The input energy flow can come from the outside (from the environment) or from other elements. The output energy flow is directed to other elements or to the environment. The process of energy conversion requires information that can be concentrated in the energy element without requiring updating; But
can be updated, replenished or changed due to the receipt of information signals from other elements of the system. The information carrier can be either a converted or a third-party energy flow.
Elements that transform matter (mechanically, chemically, physically, biologically, etc.) also need energy and information.
Connections. Connections are understood as subsystems (elements) that directly interact between other subsystems (elements), but in which decisions are not made. The morphological properties of the system significantly depend on the purpose of the connections, which can be informational, energetic and material, and their nature: direct, reverse and neutral.
Direct connections are designed to transfer matter, energy, information or a combination of them from one element to another. The quality of communication is determined by its throughput. Direct connections are usually divided into
Strengthening (weakening):
V out = KV in,
where Vin, Vout - components transmitted through connections (information, energy, matter), K - coupling coefficient (K>1 - gain, K<1 - ослабление);
Limiting:
2 V in: V * in, V in, V * in, V out = * V * in, V in 2 V * in: V in >V * in, Lagging: V out (t)=V in (t-t), where t is the delay time; Transformative: V out =Ф(V inj) j=1,n , where Ф is the transformation operator, etc. Feedbacks are primarily used to perform process control functions. Information feedback is the most common. Feedback involves some transformation of a component coming through a direct connection and the transfer of the result of the transformation back, that is, in the direction opposite to the functional sequence (and direct connection) to one of the previous elements of the system. The feedback circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.5, where the paths of the initial process, the main operating factor x and the feedback factor are highlighted. There is a wide range of possibilities for varying feedback properties. According to Fig. 3.5 we write: where J is the feedback operator. All variables are, in general, functions of time, so Feedbacks, depending on the operators Ф and J, can be made positive or negative; smooth or threshold; bilateral, responsive to increase or responsive to decrease; first order, second, ...senior order; instantaneous, lagging or advanced. Positive feedback strengthens the original process (negative feedback weakens it). Examples of some feedbacks: Linear feedback Linear threshold feedback 2 ay, y 1 ,y,y 2 , J(y)= * ay 1 , y 2 ay 2 , y>y 2 . In both of the above cases, for a>0 we have positive feedback, and for a<0 - отрицательную. Non-decreasing feedback 2 ay 2 , y 1 ,y,y 2, J(y)= * ay1 2 , y 2 ay2 2 , y>y2. Diminishing feedback If the direct and feedback connections are linear, that is, y = Ф (х,) = K pr (x+ then dx 1-KprKopr where K arr =a The last expression is usually called the gain of a linear closed-loop system. Positive feedback can play both an organizing and a disorganizing role, depending on what processes it enhances. The emergence of positive feedback between random processes creates a situation in which some of the processes will be stimulated, and as a result an effective organization can arise. Negative feedback is a regulatory factor. It inhibits the original (direct) process, does not allow it to increase excessively, but weakens its effect as soon as the main process subsides. As a result, the main process is maintained within some limits. Other most interesting feedbacks: Lagging Reacting to derivative Jy(t)=T y(t) / t, One-way (threshold) feedback 2 ay(e) for y(t) / t>0, Jy(e)= * 2 0 at y(t) / t<0 The dynamics of delayed feedback are varied and can lead to unexpected consequences. In particular, they can cause periodic processes or have an inhibitory effect, which depends on the nature of the feed-forward element that is covered by the feedback. Unlike lagging feedback, the meaning of leading feedback is its prognostic impact (for example, control and planning of production processes). The role of the leading negative connection can be as follows: negative (for example, bureaucracy, routine, conservatism as an obstacle to desired changes), and positive (for example, the same conservatism with unfounded structural changes). In circuits where feedback acts on the derivative of the output process (y), as long as changes in y are slow feedback has a weak effect, and with large changes it turns on feedback and has an inhibitory or stimulating effect. Until now, it has been assumed that feedback loops operate continuously and without change. But there may be feedbacks, the structure and parameters of which depend on both time and impact, and in a deterministic, random, adaptive way. In this case, stable and unstable feedbacks are distinguished. Thus, feedbacks are one of the main constructive devices with the help of which system properties are formed. Each individual feedback forms an S 1 system. By combining several feedback links into a single system, the following functions can be formed: 1) strengthening (weakening) of processes, 2) stabilization of processes, 3) delay of the process for a constant (or depending on some characteristics of the process) time, 4) remembering the process, 5) reproduction and repeated repetition of the process, 6) process transformation, 7) analysis-selection of subprocesses, 8) synthesis-combination of subprocesses, 9) comparison of processes and memorization of different subprocesses, 10) process recognition, 11) prediction and formation of processes. Based on a combination of the listed functions, it is possible to build an S 0 -system capable of forming and making decisions. Neutral connections are not related to the functional activity of the system, are unpredictable or random. At the same time, neutral connections can play a certain role in adaptation and serve as an initial resource for the formation of direct and feedback connections. Structure. Typically, structure (s) refers to the set of all possible relationships between subsystems and elements within a system. The formation of a structure involves decomposing the system, dividing it into subsystems. Division can be made according to various criteria. Replacing one or more subsystems (elements) of a structure with other subsystems (elements) does not change the relationship between the replaced subsystems (elements) and the remaining subsystems of the system. Consequently, the main factor in the formation of structure is the assignment of structural relationships. Based on the nature of the relationships between elements, structures are divided into multi-connected, hierarchical and mixed. Relationships can be deterministic, probabilistic, or chaotic. The properties of structures, respectively deterministic, probabilistic, chaotic, and mixed, depend on these relationships. Determinism, like indeterminism, has its own hierarchy of perfection. Low level - complete immutability, the next, higher level - turning on and off certain elements (under appropriate conditions), even higher - building up the structure (from elements formed from the external environment) in a strictly defined direction, creating elements of a new type, but provided for in advance , etc. Probabilistic structures have random changes at the lowest level, followed by targeted changes, with selection, etc. The boundary between stable and unstable high-level structures is not defined. Let's take a closer look at the category of relationship using the example of two interacting subsystems (or systems) A and B. Relationships deterministically, if state A completely determines state B, and vice versa. If M A and M B are sets of possible states of systems A and B, then m B = f A (m A); m A =f B (m B), where m A M A; m B M B; f A and f B are single-valued functions. If state A completely determines state B, and state B determines state A with a probability different from 0 and 1, the ratio A,B deterministic-probable m B =f A (m A), P(m A)=f B (m B), where P(m A) is the probability that system A will be in state m A M A. The relationship is probabilistic if states A and B are interconnected by certain constant probability values, that is P(m B)=f A (m A); P(m A)=f B (m B). Attitude restrictive, if state A limits the set of states B, that is m B M BA, M BA =f(m A), M BA M B, A restrictive relation can be not only deterministic, but also deterministic-probabilistic and probabilistic. Respectively: m B M BA, M BA =f A (m A), M BA M B, mA MAB, P(MAB)=fB(mB), MAB MA and m B M BA, P(M BA)=f(m A), M BA M B, m A M AB, P(M AB)=f(m B), M AB M A. m B M BA (1), M BA (1) =f A (M AB (1)), M BA (1) M B, M AB (1) M A, m A M AB (2), M AB (2) =f B (M BA (2)), M AB (2) M A, M BA (2) M B. The categorical attitude provides significant freedom of behavior for each of the subsystems. Systems consisting of subsystems between which there are categorical relationships can have a wide range of possible behaviors when interacting with the environment. Subsystems whose output components uniquely depend on any output components of previous subsystems are called slaves, and the previous subsystems are called managers. Three classes of structures have the greatest practical and theoretical significance: hierarchical, non-hierarchical and mixed. Hierarchical structures (see Fig. 3.6) are characterized by the presence of control (command) subsystems and they satisfy the following conditions: 1) each subsystem is either a manager, or a subordinate, or (in relation to various subsystems) both at the same time; 2) there is at least one subordinate subsystem; 3) there is one and only one control subsystem; 4) any subordinate subsystem directly interacts with one and only one control one (the reverse is not necessary). For multi-level hierarchical structures, the following provisions apply: a) a higher-level subsystem deals with broader aspects of the behavior of the system as a whole; b) the time for converting input components into output components increases with increasing level of the control subsystem; c) subsystems at higher levels of the hierarchical structure deal with slower aspects of system behavior; d) with an increase in the level of the subsystem, the proportion of the information component of transformation and interaction and its role in the functional activity of the system increases. Non-hierarchical structures are derived from a multi-connected structure (see Fig. 3.7), in which each subsystem directly interacts with every other. Non-hierarchical structures satisfy the following conditions: 1) there is at least one subsystem that is neither controlling nor subordinate; 2) there is no subsystem that is only subordinate; 3) there is no subsystem that is only a manager; 4) any subordinate subsystem directly interacts with more than one control one (the reverse is not necessary). An important feature of a non-hierarchical structure is that it does not have subsystems that make decisions independent of other subsystems. It usually has the following properties: a) any subsystem can influence all aspects of the system’s behavior; b) the time of transformation of input components into output components weakly depends on the position of the subsystem in the structure; c) the functions of subsystems change more easily in the process of interaction. Considering the extent to which subsystems influence other subsystems in a non-hierarchical structure leads to the important concept of leadership. Leading is called a subsystem that satisfies the following requirements: 1) the subsystem does not have deterministic interaction with any subsystem; 2) the subsystem is the control one (with direct or indirect interaction) in relation to part (the largest number) of subsystems; 3) the subsystem is either not controlled (subordinate) or is controlled by the smallest number of subsystems (compared to other subsystems). There can be more than one leading subsystem; with several leading subsystems, a main leading subsystem is possible. Non-hierarchical structures without leadership are called equilibrium. Mixed structures are various combinations of hierarchical and non-hierarchical structures. The stability of the structure is characterized by the time of its change. The structure can change without class conversion or by converting one class to another. In particular, the emergence of a leader in a non-hierarchical structure can lead to its transformation into a hierarchical one, etc. Graphs are used to describe structures. An important feature of a structural graph is the number of possible paths that can be taken from one vertex to another. The more such paths, the more redundant the structure and the higher its reliability. But there may also be useless redundancy, which is depicted in the structure graph as loops (see Fig. 3.8). The presence of loops means a waste of resources. Typically, loops can be removed from the structure without any damage to the functional properties of the object. Composition(TO). The compositional properties of systems are determined by the way elements are combined into subsystems. There are subsystems: effector- capable of transforming the impact and influencing other subsystems and systems with matter and energy, including the environment; receptor- capable of converting the influence of influence into information signals, transmitting and transferring information; reflective- capable of reproducing processes within themselves at the information level, generating information; and uncertain- whose properties cannot be determined. The composition of systems that do not contain subsystems (elements) with pronounced properties is called weak, and those containing subsystems with pronounced functions are called effector, receptor or reflexive subsystems, respectively. Combinations are possible. The composition of a system that includes subsystems of all three types is called complete. As a result, the morphological description of the system is: where S=S i - set of elements and their properties, distinguishing: composition - homogeneous, heterogeneous, mixed, uncertain; properties - material, energetic, informational, mixed, uncertain; V=V i - set of connections, distinguishing: purpose of connections - informational, material, energy, mixed; nature of connections - direct, reverse, neutral; s - structure, distinguishing: stability of the structure - deterministic, probabilistic, chaotic; building a structure - hierarchical, multi-connected, mixed, transforming; K - composition, distinguishing: weak, with effector, with receptor, with reflexive subsystems, complete, indefinite. A morphological description, like a functional one, is built according to a hierarchical (multi-level) principle through sequential decomposition of subsystems. Indoor flowers and plants are very diverse. Each of them has its own characteristics that must be taken into account when growing them. But to do this, first of all you need to know their correct scientific name. To determine the name, the features of the external structure of the shoots are used, to characterize which the simplest botanical terms are used. It is necessary to firmly grasp them A shoot is a stem with leaves and buds located on it. A node is where a leaf attaches to a stem. The internode is the part of the stem between two nodes. The internodes of the shoot can be long or very short, almost invisible. Types of shoots Elongated - shoots with long internodes. Shortened - shoots with short internodes. Ascending - shoots whose lower part is adjacent to the ground and rises in an arched manner. ^ Recumbent - weak shoots that spread along the ground and cannot grow vertically. Creeping - lying shoots that form roots in places of contact with the soil. ^ Whiskers are long creeping shoots with greatly elongated internodes and reduced leaves. Curly - shoots that wrap around a support. Clinging - shoots that cling with the help of tendrils, thorns or trailers to nearby plants, walls, etc. Stem Types of stems The cross-sectional shape of the stems is round, tetrahedral, triangular, or flattened. Modified shoots Rhizomes are underground shoots that look like roots. Externally, they differ from the root in that they have small modified leaves in the form of scales, in the axil of which there are buds. ^ Tubers are underground shoots with a short, swollen, fleshy stem and scale-like leaves. Bulbs are underground shoots with greatly shortened internodes and crowded fleshy leaves. Phyllocladia are flat stems that act as leaves. Cladodia are leaf-like modifications that quickly stop growing. Leaf structure The plate is the wide flat part. Petiole is a narrow stem-like part with which the blade is attached to the stem. The vagina is a tube enclosing the stem.. Stipules are paired leaflets at the base of the leaf. Types of leaves according to the method of attachment to the stem Petiolate - a leaf that has a petiole. Sessile - a leaf in which the petiole is absent and the leaf blade is attached to the stem with its base. Arrangement of leaves on the stem The next thing is that only 1 leaf is attached to the stem node, ^ Opposite - 2 sheets are attached to one node, located one opposite the other. Whorled - several leaves are attached to each node ^ Basal rosette - in plants with short shoots, the leaves are brought together and form a basal rosette. Types of leaves by structure All leaves are divided into simple and complex. ^ A simple leaf has 1 petiole and 1 leaf blade, even if it is heavily indented. Compound leaf - consists of several plates separated from each other. ^ Compound leaves Pinnately compound - leaves in which the leaflets are arranged in pairs on either side of the main petiole. Imparipinnate - a pinnately compound leaf that ends with only 1 unpaired leaflet. Pairipinnate - a pinnately compound leaf in which all the leaflets are arranged in pairs. Palmate-compound leaflets extend from the end of the common petiole; trifoliate leaves consist of 3 leaflets sitting on a common petiole. Leaf edge Entire-edged - the edge of the leaf blade of simple leaves and leaflets of a complex leaf is whole, that is, it has no protrusions or grooves. Blade - the notches do not reach half the width of the half-plate. Separate - notches deeper than half the width of the half-plate and dissected - notches reaching almost to the midrib. Leaf blade location Pinnately - parts of the leaf blade of lobed, divided and dissected leaves are located on both sides of the main vein like a feather. ^ Palmate-lobed, palmately divided, and palmately dissected leaves - part of the leaf blade - are located along the periphery of the leaf and resemble the fingers of an outstretched palm. ^ Solid - a sheet that does not have cutouts, or with cutouts reaching less than a quarter of the width of the half-plate. Leaf blade shape. Linear - the length exceeds the width many times; Oblong - the length exceeds the width by 3-10 times, the apex and base are rounded; Lanceolate - the ratio of length and width is like that of an oblong, the apex and base are pointed; Ovate - the length exceeds the width by 1.5-2 times with the greatest width at the base of the leaf" ; Oval - has the same length-to-width ratio as ovoid, but the greatest width is in the middle of the leaf blade; Rounded - the length of the leaf blade is equal to the width or slightly exceeds it. Venation The venation of leaves, i.e., the arrangement of vascular bundles in the leaf, can be: Parallel-neural - several veins enter the blade from the petiole, which run parallel to each other and converge at its apex. Palmate-nervous - the veins fan out from the base of the plate. Pinnate-nervous - with a strongly developed main vein, from which there are separate at an angle - notches deeper than half the width of the half-lamella and dissected - notches reaching almost to the midrib. ^ Description of plants and identification of names using the houseplant guide. 1.Rocissus rhombicus Leaves: well developed, leathery, compound, trifoliate, diamond-shaped. Stem: weak, long, hanging over the edge of the pot, with tendrils, woody. Flower: absent. 2. Cyperus Leaves: simple, linear, the shape of the leaf apex is spinous, the leaf edge is entire, the lower part is wedge-shaped, the venation is parallel, the leaf arrangement is apical rosette. Stem: herbaceous, no nodes. Flower: none. 3.Chlorophytum Leaves: soft, collected in bunches, along the edges of the leaves there are whitish and yellowish longitudinal stripes, shape – linear, shape of the leaf apex – spinous, leaf edge – entire, lower part – retracted, simple, leaf arrangement – apical rosette, venation – parallel. Stem: weakly expressed. Flower: none. 4.Stromanta Leaves: entire, entire, ovoid, with a heart-shaped base and pointed apex, leathery, shiny. Stem: long, weakly branched. Flower: absent. Leaves: very large, pinnately compound or fan-shaped, on long petioles, located, as a rule, only at the top of the unbranched trunk. Stem: has several trunks, woody. Flower: absent. 6. Venus hair. Leaves: simple, shape – broadly ovate, leaf apex – rounded, lower part – rounded, leaf edge – entire, venation – palmate, leaf arrangement – alternate. Stem: many, hanging over the edge of the pot. Flower: absent. Leaves: There are modified leaves. Stem: many, pronounced nodes, internodes – 1 cm. ^ Flower: absent. 8.Kalanchoe Leaves: leaf arrangement whorled, 3 leaves in a whorl, leaves sessile, convex on the underside. ^ Stem: several, pronounced nodes, internodes – 3 cm. Flower: absent, present in some species. 9. Crassula tree Leaves: entire, oval or obovate, shiny. Stem: thick, up to 5-6 cm in diameter, with transverse convex scars. Flower: absent. 10. Haworthia striped Leaves: without awn, dark green. On the underside of the leaves there are white warts arranged in transverse wavy rows, the leaf arrangement is a basal rosette. Stem: weakly expressed. Flower: absent. ^ 11. Saintpaulia violetflower Leaves: velvety with numerous short hairs covering their upper side, the leaves are medium-sized (up to 4-6 cm in diameter), round, oval or ovoid in shape, with a base, the venation is pinnate. Stem: short, no nodes. Flower: various colors - white, pink, blue, purple. ^ 12. Sansevieria three-striped Leaves: very hard, long, thick, entire, growing from rhizomes perpendicular to the soil surface. Stem: poorly expressed. Flower: absent. 13.Asparagus Leaves: has modified leaves and scales. Stem: long, no nodes. Flower: absent. 14. Begonia Leaves: unequal - one side of the leaf blade is narrower and shorter than the other, at the base of the petiole there are two membranous stipules. Stem: many, no nodes. Flower: present in some species. 15. Common ivy Leaves: 5-7 lobed, veins pinnate. Stem: weak, long, hangs over the edge of the pot, short stems form on the stem hard roots-suction cups, with which in natural conditions the plant is attached to the support. Flower: absent. 16.Nephrolepsis Leaves: a rosette of large, up to 70 cm long, pinnate leaves. The leaves are lanceolate in outline, short petiolate. The segments (“feathers”) are lanceolate, 5 cm long or more, the edges are vaguely serrated and crenate. Stem: herbaceous, short vertical. ^ Flower: absent. 17.Dieffenbachia Leaves: simple, shape – ovate, leaf arrangement – whorled, leaf tip shape – spinous, lower part – heart-shaped, leaf edge – entire, venation – pinnate. Stem: several, nodes are pronounced, internode is 2 cm, nodes are lignified. Flower: absent. 18. Monstera perforatum Leaves: compound, with holes, edge - ragged, leaf arrangement - basal rosette, venation - pinnate. Stem: a few. Flower: absent. Plants Fertilizer Additional care 1.Rocissus rhombicus Grows in a mixture of clay, turfy humus soil with the addition of sand (2:2:1), in hydroponic and ionite cultures Does not tolerate overdrying of the earthen clod Requires frequent washing of leaves to remove dust. 2. Cyperus The soil is a mixture of clay-turf (2 parts), leaf (1 part), peat (1 part) and sand (1 part). It would be good to add a little charcoal and brick chips to the soil. Abundant all the time, the soil should never dry out. It is better to water from a tray. From March to September, every two weeks they are fed with a special complex fertilizer for indoor plants. 3.Chlorophytum The soil substrate is prepared from a mixture of turf, humus, leaf soil and sand (in a ratio of 2:1:1:1). From spring to autumn, the plant is given abundant watering; the soil should be constantly moist, but stagnation of water in the pan should not be allowed. Fertilizing is done from March to August with a solution of complex fertilizer recommended for decorative deciduous plants (once every 2 weeks). Chlorophytum responds with active growth if its foliage is regularly sprayed with water and a warm shower is given monthly. Wash the leaves very carefully, as they are very fragile. 4.Stromanta You can use a ready-made “Palm” substrate mixed with peat soil. In winter, watering should be moderate, the soil should dry out slightly before watering Feed the plant at least 2 times a month with flower fertilizers During the period of active growth, the plant requires abundant watering and high humidity. Special soil for palm trees During active growth, water thoroughly. Water sparingly in winter. Feed with regular liquid fertilizer once every 2 weeks. From early spring to mid-autumn, keep in bright, diffused light, in winter - in direct sunlight. 6.Venus hair Grows well in loose, fertile soil, as well as among alkaline rocks: limestone, sandstone or tuff. Regular Once every 3-4 weeks with semi-concentrated fertilizer in spring and summer 2 parts clay turf, 1 part leaf, 1 part humus and 1 part coarse sand. From spring to autumn, water as the soil dries. In winter, water very rarely - once every one to two months. It is necessary to feed, adding a mixture of fertilizers used for cacti monthly. Grow in flat pots. 8.Kalanchoe Special substrate for cacti In winter, depending on the temperature in the room, watering is moderate, but the earth ball should not be allowed to dry out - plants cannot tolerate this. From May to August, fertilize with complete fertilizer for indoor plants every two weeks. After flowering it is necessary to prune 9. Crassula arborescens Grows in a mixture of turf, leaf, peat soil and coarse sand (1:1:0.5:1). Abundant watering; when growing indoors, keep the soil moderately moist, avoiding stagnation of water In summer, feed with mineral fertilizers once a month. Place in a bright place, shaded from direct sunlight. In summer they can be taken out into the garden (in a place protected from the sun and rain) 10.Haworthia striped Any mixtures left over after transplanting other plants, be sure to add sand. The only condition: the soil should not be very “light” Water the same as other “moderately drinking” indoor plants, i.e. in summer, generously as the top layer of soil dries, in winter, moderately, allowing the soil to dry thoroughly between waterings. No spraying required. From spring to autumn, you can feed cacti fertilizer no more than once a month. Feels great in winter at room temperature 11. Uzumbara violet The soil must be loose, nutritious, water- and breathable Water only with soft water, avoid stagnation of moisture. When watering, do not wet the leaves, otherwise spots will appear on them. Water either from a jug with a thin spout directly under the outlet, or into a tray, draining the remaining water after a while. In winter, a period of relative rest, less watering Feed every 14 days If growth is too strong, apply cactus fertilizer. Remove faded flowers regularly. 12. Sansevieria three-striped Good, fertile land Water only when the soil is dry, usually watering once every two weeks is sufficient. Not accustomed to fertilizers: after fertilizing, it loses the variegation of leaves and becomes almost monochromatic During the active growing season from spring to autumn, watering asparagus should be uniform and moderate (the soil should dry out between waterings); limited watering in winter Feed (from March to August, twice a month) with slurry and complete mineral fertilizer, alternating them. Unpretentious; it is a much easier plant to grow than most indoor flowers because it requires less care and adapts to its growing conditions. However, it grows well and produces an abundance of lush, delicate greenery close to windows when grown in moderate temperatures 14. Begonia A mixture of leaf, light turf, humus soil and sand (2:0.5:1:1). Watering should be uniform. It is better if this is done at the same hours. In summer, water abundantly; water must come out of the drainage hole. Feed once every two weeks with complete mineral fertilizer They respond very well to frequent loosening of approximately 1 cm of the top layer of soil. A mixture of turf and leaf soil, peat, sand (1:1:2:1/2). In summer, watering is frequent and regular - the soil should always be moist, and the plant should also be sprayed periodically. In winter, watering and spraying are reduced, depending on the temperature. To support the ivy, it is advisable to use a piece of wood with bark covered with cracks, then it can cling to them 16.Nephrolepsis Soil - a mixture of turf and leaf soil, peat, sand Watering is necessary throughout the year evenly. During spring - summer, fertilizing is carried out with organic and mineral fertilizers. 17.Dieffenbachia A mixture of 2 parts of fertile humus, 1 - peat, 1 - leaf humus and a handful of sand. The soil should be moist, but water should not stagnate in the pot, as the roots may rot. From April to September, add liquid fertilizer to the water. Neither in autumn nor in winter does the plant enter a period of rest, but it becomes less lush; it should be kept in a bright place at a minimum temperature of 15-1 8 ° C, watered once a week and sprayed on sunny days. In summer, watering is plentiful, in winter - moderate, but without drying out the soil. Due to excessive watering, the roots of milkweed rot, and due to severe drying of the substrate, its leaves sag and fall off. In the spring-summer period, milkweed is fed once a month with an infusion of mullein or low-concentration bird droppings. Very resistant to dry air and light-loving, but suffers from both shading and direct hot sunlight 19. Monstera perforatum Three parts of turf soil and one part each of leaf soil, peat, humus and sand. Watering should be uniform. In summer they water more abundantly, During the period of increased growth (March - August), apply floral fertilizer twice a month. For normal growth, supports or a special epiphytic trunk are needed. 1. Plant. 1.1. Woody: trees– have a perennial woody shoot – trunk; bushes– plants with several lignified trunks, called stems; shrubs– low-growing shrubs from 5 to 60 cm in height with a lifespan of stem shoots of 5-10 years. 1.2. Semi-woody plant: subshrubs– plants whose shoots are up to 80 cm high, their upper part dies annually, the lower part of the shoots up to 20 cm from the soil surface is perennial; subshrubs- plants whose shoots are up to 15-20 cm high, their upper part dies annually, the lower part of the shoots up to 5 cm from the soil surface is perennial; 1.3. Herbaceous – herbs– do not have perennial above-ground shoots: perennial herbs– perennial are underground or above-ground, hidden in the litter or tightly pressed to the ground, parts of shoots with renewal buds; biennial herbs– go through the life cycle in two years and die off completely; annual herbs– do not have perennial organs; after fruiting they die completely. 2. Root. The totality of all the roots of one plant is called the root system. 2.1. Root systems by origin: tap root system- develops from the embryonic root and is represented by the main root (first order) with lateral roots of the second and subsequent orders; adventitious root system develops on stems, leaves; mixed root system– in a plant grown from a seed, the main root system first develops; its growth does not last long; by the autumn of the first year of vegetation, a system of adventitious roots develops on the hypocotyl, epicotyl and other parts of the shoot (Fig. 9). Figure 9. Root systems by origin: a – main root system, b – adventitious root system, c – mixed root system. 2.2. Main forms of root systems: core– the main root is noticeably longer and thicker than the lateral ones, fibrous– the main root is not expressed (Fig. 10). Figure 10. Forms of root systems: taproot (1-4), fibrous (5). 2.3. Root modifications. Storage roots: root crop (a, b, c) - an axial orthotropic organ formed by the basal part of the main root (the root itself), a thickened hypocotyl (neck) and epicotyl (head), represented by a basal rosette; root tubers (d) – metamorphosed lateral or adventitious roots (Fig. 11). Figure 11. Modifications of roots and their structure: 1 – structure of the seedling (E – epicotyl, GP – hypocotyl, GC – main root); 2 – structure of the root crop (G – head, W – neck, SC – root itself), modifications of the roots: root crops (2,3,4,5), root tubers (6). Contractile or retractile roots– they draw the plant’s regeneration organs into the soil to a certain depth by fixing the root apex in the soil and reducing its basal part, which is externally expressed in the appearance of transverse wrinkles and folds on it (Fig. 12). Figure 12. Contractile roots. Mycorrhiza(fungal root) - the root endings of plants are entwined with fungal hyphae (Fig. 13). Figure 13. Mycorrhiza: 1 – ecto-endotrophic, 2 – endotrophic, fungal hyphae fill the entire cell, 3 – digestion of hyphae by the cell. Nodules– growths on the roots (a), where nitrogen-fixing bacteria from the genus Rhizobium live (b) (Fig. 14). Figure 14. Nodules on lupine roots: a – general view of the root system, b – cross-section of a root with a nodule. 3. Escape. It is an unbranched stem with leaves and buds. The stem is an axial organ that connects above-ground green assimilating organs (air nutrition) and underground organs (soil nutrition). 3.1. In relation to the substrate: aboveground - located in the air or water environment, underground - located in the soil. Figure 15. Method of shoot growth: 1 – apical, 2 – intercalary. 3.2. Method of growth: apical - grows due to the apical bud, intercalary or intercalary - growth is carried out due to the meristem located at the base of the node (Fig. 15). 3.3. Shape on the cross section: round (a), triangular (b), tetrahedral (c), polyhedral (d), ribbed (e), grooved (f), flattened (g), winged (h) (Fig. 16). Figure 16. Cross-sectional shapes of the stem. 3.4. According to the direction of growth or the location of the shoot relative to the soil surface: orthotropic - erect shoots, plagiotropic - grow parallel or oblique. 3.5. Position in space: a) erect – the stem stands straight (a); clinging - cling to support with the help of tendrils, thorns, roots-trailers (b); curly - twisting around a support (c); creeping - growing along the surface of the soil, but not rooting in nodes (d); creeping - represented by vines rooting in nodes (e); ascending or ascending - erect at a young age, then under the weight of the stem they bend and are pressed to the ground, and the top rises, ascends (e); mustache-stolons - end with a basal rosette, on the stem of which adventitious roots (g) develop (Fig. 17). Figure 17. Position of stems in space. 3.6. Type of branching: monopodial - the main stem, formed from the bud of the embryo, retains the growth cone throughout its life, one bud works; sympodial - the growth cone of the first-order axis stops growing early, the growth occurs due to the work of the lateral bud; dichotomous (forked) – the growth cone bifurcates; false dichotomous - a type of sympodial, the growth cone of the first-order axis stops growing early, the growth occurs due to the work of oppositely located lateral buds (Fig. 18). Figure 18. Types of stem branching: 1 – monopodial, 2 – sympodial, 3 – dichotomous, 4 – false dichotomous. Branching of the stems of cereal plants occurs only at the soil surface in the tillering zone. Depending on the shape of the tillering node and the length of the horizontal part of the shoot, the following are distinguished: dense bush nature of shoot formation - side shoots grow parallel to each other, forming a dense bush; loose-bush nature of shoot formation - side shoots depart at an acute angle in relation to the central one and each other, forming a loose bush; rhizomatous nature of shoot formation - above-ground or underground horizontal shoots extend from the tillering node (Fig. 19). Figure 19. The nature of shoot formation of cereals: a – rhizomatous, b – loose bush, c – dense bush. Figure 20. Length of shoot internodes: 1 – shortened, 2 – extended. 3.7. Length of internodes: elongated - auxiblast (mustaches, lashes, stolons, rhizomes), shortened - brachyblast (spines, cladodes, "fruits", rosettes, tubers, bulbs, corms) (Fig. 20). 3.8. Pubescence: pubescent - the stem is covered with outgrowths - hairs, bare - the stem is smooth without outgrowths (Fig. 21). Figure 21. Hairiness of the stem: 1 – bare, 2 – pubescent. 3.9. Foliage: deciduous - stem bearing leaves, leafless - stem not bearing leaves - arrow (Fig. 22). Figure 22. Foliage of the stem: 1 – arrow, 2 – leafy stem. 4. Leaves. 4.1. Leaf arrangement: alternate - leaves are arranged one at a node, opposite - leaves are arranged two at a node opposite each other; whorled - three or more leaves emerge from the node (Fig. 23). Figure 23. Leaf arrangement: spiral or alternate (a), opposite (b), whorled (c). 4.2. Classification of leaves: simple - have one leaf blade, they either do not fall off, or when they fall off they have one joint between the petiole and the stem; complex - there are several leaf blades, each of which has its own petiole, sitting on a common axis - the rachis (Fig. 24). Figure 24. Classification of leaves and their structure: A - simple, B - complex. 1 – leaf base, 2 – petiole, 3 – leaf blade, 4 – stipules, 5 – rachis, 6 – simple leaves 4.3. Types of leaves: petiolate - consist of a base, petiole and leaf blade; sessile – no petiole; descending - the leaf blade of a sessile leaf grows to the stem over some distance; vaginal - the base of the petiole expands into the vagina, enveloping the stem (Fig. 25). Figure 25. Types of leaves and their structure: A – petiolate, B – sessile, C – vaginal, G – descending; 1 – leaf blade, 2 – petiole, 3 – leaf base, 4 – stipules, 5 – vagina The vagina can be open or closed. Vaginal leaves at the junction of the leaf blade and the vagina may have outgrowths - ears, tongues. Leaves can be with stipules - paired lateral outgrowths of the base of the leaf, without stipules, with a bell - fused stipules (Fig. 26). Figure 26. Parts of the leaf: 1 – open vagina in the family. Celery, 2 – closed vagina and 3 – open vagina in this family. Bluegrass, 4 – ears, 5 – tongue, 6 – bell. 4.4. Shape of the leaf blade of a simple whole leaf: needle-shaped (1), linear (2), oblong (3), lanceolate (4), oval (5), rounded (6), ovate (7), obovate (8), rhombic (9 ), scapular (10), cordate-ovoid (11), kidney-shaped (12), sagittal (13), spear-shaped (14), thyroid (15) (Fig. 27). Figure 27. Simple leaves with a single blade. 4.5. Simple leaves with a dissected blade (Fig. 28): Figure 28. Simple leaves with a dissected blade. 4.6. Compound leaves are classified according to their shape - trifoliate (a), palmate (b), pari-pinnate (c), odd-pinnate (d), doubly-pinnate (e) (Fig. 29); Figure 29. Types of compound leaves. For compound leaves, the shape of the leaflets of the compound leaf is noted (see shape of simple leaves); number of leaves. 4.7. Shape of the edge of the leaf blade (leaflets): entire, serrate, doubly serrate, toothed, crenate, notched (Fig. 30). Figure 30. Shape of the edge of the leaf blade (leaflets): 1 – serrate, 2 – toothed, 3 – notched, 4 – doubly serrated, 5 – crenate, 6 – entire. 4.8. Shape of the tip of the leaf blade: sharp (1), elongated (2), obtuse (3), rounded (4), truncated (5), notched (6), pointed (7) (Fig. 31). 4.9. Shape of the base of the leaf blade: narrow wedge-shaped (1), wedge-shaped (2), broadly wedge-shaped (3), descending (4), truncated (5), rounded (6), notched (7), heart-shaped (8) (Fig. 32). Figure 32. Shape of the base of the leaf blade. 4.10. Leaf venation. The term "vein" is applied to a vascular bundle or group of closely adjacent bundles. Simple venation - one non-branching vein passes through the leaf blade; dichotomous venation - the main vein branches forked, there are no anastomoses; parallel venation - from the base of the leaf, a number of veins of relatively equal size enter the blade, which pierce the blade parallel to each other and are connected by anastomoses; arcuate venation - from the base of the leaf, a number of veins of relatively equal size enter into the blade, which pierce the blade in an arcuate manner and are connected by anastomoses; pinnate venation - only one vein goes from the stem to the leaf, strongly branching in the blade; palmate venation - several equal veins emerge from the petiole and each of them branches (Fig. 33). Figure 33. Leaf venation: A – simple, B – dichotomous, C – parallel, G – arcuate, D – fingered, E – pinnate. 4.11. Modifications of leaves: spines - sharp needles that serve for protection Figure 34. Leaf modifications: spines (1), tendrils (2,3), phyllodes (4). (barberry, thistle), tendrils - metamorphosis of the upper part of the leaf (peas, vetch) or the entire leaf (china, mustache peas); phyllodes - leaf-shaped, expanded petiole (some types of acacias) (Fig. 34). 5. Flowers. Flowers solitary or in inflorescences. 5.1. Flowers are solitary. A typical angiosperm flower ends in a main or lateral shoot. There are also axillary single flowers. It is a complex reproductive organ of angiosperms. A flower is a modified, shortened, limited in growth, unbranched spore-bearing shoot, intended for the formation of spores, gametes and the sexual process, culminating in the formation of seeds and fruit. A flower consists of sterile (asexual) and fertile (fertile) parts. The stem part of the flower is represented by the peduncle and receptacle. The axis of the flower is called the receptacle; it is the shortened part of the flower (Fig. 35, 36). The receptacle has a variety of shapes: concave, flat, convex (Fig. 37). Figure 37. Shapes of the receptacle: A – concave, B – flat, C – convex. The parts of a flower are divided into reproductive (stamens, pistil or pistils) and sterile (calyx, corolla, perianth). Depending on the presence of the reproductive organs of a flower, they are divided into: bisexual - the flower contains stamens and a pistil; unisexual - flowers containing either only stamens or only pistils (pistil) (Fig. 38). Figure 38. Classification of flowers by reproductive parts: 1 – bisexual, 2 – staminate, 3 – pistillate, (a – stamen, b – pistil). 5.1.1. Types of flowers depending on their symmetry (Fig. 39): 1. A regular or actinomorphic flower can be divided by a vertical plane passing through the axis of symmetry into two equal halves in at least two directions. 2. Irregular or zygomorphic, if one plane of symmetry can be drawn through the flower (legumes). 3. Asymmetrical or asymmetrical, if no plane of symmetry can be drawn through the flower (valerian officinalis). Figure 39. Classification of corollas by symmetry: zygomorphic (1), actinomorphic (2), asymmetrical (3). The perianth is the sterile part of the flower, which is its covering that protects the more delicate stamens and pistils and consists of a calyx and corolla. There are double and simple perianth. Double - differentiated into a calyx and corolla of different sizes and colors. The calyx consists of a collection of sepals and forms the outer circle of the perianth. Usually the sepals are small in size and green in color. They protect the internal parts The sepals are free (calyx free-leaved, or divided leaf) or more or less fused (calyx compound-leaved, or sphenofolate). Depending on the degree of fusion of the sepals, there are different Corolla (corolla), consisting of a collection of colored (sometimes green) petals(petala), forms the inner circle of the double perianth. The petals most often form the second (sometimes the third) circle of the flower. The corolla is distinguished by its larger size, variety of colors and shapes. The variety of corollas is very large. They are distinguished both by color and color intensity, and by the number of petals, their shape, size, relative position, etc. It is also important to establish whether they grow together, at least partially, or remain free. Types of whisks: 1. Separate - consists of free, unfused petals. In this regard, two types of rims are distinguished: free-petalled (separated) And fused-petalous (spine-petalous). When examining a free-petalled corolla, you need to carefully consider the structure of individual petals. It is necessary to determine whether there is a nail and This often leads to the formation of various outgrowths at the border of the nail and the petal plate, which together give a special formation called adventitious corolla or priven-chik. In some plants (narcissus, passionflower), the adventitious corolla is well defined, while in others (purple weed) it consists of a ring of hairs immersed in the corolla tube and is outwardly invisible (Fig. 43). Figure 43. Flowers with a corolla. 1 – crown 2. Spinopetalous - fused (funnel-shaped, tubular, reed-shaped, bilabial, wheel-shaped, bell-shaped). morphic And zygomorphic. Actinomorphic free-petalled corollas are classified according to the number of petals, their relative arrangement, and the presence or absence of a marigold. There are several forms of fusion-petal actinomorphic corollas, which are installed depending on the ratio of the length of the tube, the shape and size of the bend (Fig. 45): rotate– when the tube is small or almost completely absent, and the limb is turned almost into one plane (forget-me-not, loosestrife); funnel-shaped– a large funnel-shaped tube, the bend is relatively small (tobacco, dope); bell-shaped– the tube is spherical, cup-shaped, gradually turning into an inconspicuous limb (lily of the valley, bell); tube-shaped – cylindrical tube with an erect, more or less short bend (sunflower and other asteraceae); cap – petals grow together at the tips (grapes). Figure 45. Shapes of interpetalled actinomorphic corollas: A – wheel-shaped, B – funnel-shaped, C – bell-shaped, D – tube-shaped, D – cap-shaped. Zygomorphic corollas often take on a special shape, which is a good morphological feature of a particular group of plants (species, 2. A simple perianth is not differentiated into a calyx and corolla, and consists of a set of homogeneous perianth leaves (Fig. 47). Types of simple perianths: 1. The calyx-shaped perianth consists of green leaves. 2. The corolla-shaped perianth consists of differently colored leaves. Figure 47. Simple perianths. A – corolla-shaped, B – cup-shaped. Depending on the shape, a simple perianth can be: diced - all petals are free (goosebump), sphenolate - petals are fused (lily of the valley). 3.The perianth may be reduced. Flowers that do not have a perianth are called glabrous (Fig. 48). Figure 48. Flowers without perianth (naked). 1 – whitefly, 2 – ash. Androecium(androeceum) is a collection of stamens (microsporophylls) of one flower. They are arranged in a spiral or in 1-2 circles. The number of stamens is constant for the species. The stamen consists of a filament, anther and connective tissue (Fig. 49). liaison officer According to the method of attachment of the anther to the filament, they are divided into: motionless, attached to the filament by the base; swinging, attached to the thread in the middle part (cereals). Sterile stamens, that is, not bearing an anther, are called staminodes(linen). The number of stamens in a flower is different: one (cannaceae, orchids), two (fragrant spikelet), three (cereals, iris), five (nightshade, asteraceae), six (lily), ten (legumes), many (ranunculaceae). The stamens can be free or fused. Based on the number of groups of fused stamens, different types of androecium are distinguished (Fig. 50): 1. Fraternal, when the stamens remain unfused. 2. Monofraternal, when all the stamens in a flower grow together into one group (lupine, camellia). 3. Bibrotherous, when the stamens grow together into two groups (in many legumes, nine stamens grow together, and one remains free). 4. Polybrotherous, when numerous stamens grow together into several groups (St. John's wort, magnolia). Figure 50. Types of androecium. A – free: 1 – tulip, 2 – two-strong Lamiaceae, 3 – four-strong Brassicas; B – fused: 4 – monofraternal loosestrife, 5 – monofraternal asteraceae, 6 – difraternal legumes, 7 – polyfraternal St. John’s wort. Based on the length of the stamens relative to each other, they are distinguished: 1. Equal (tulip), if they are all equal in length; 2. Unequal (Olympic catchment), if the stamens are of different lengths; 3. Double-vigorous, if out of four stamens two are long and two are short (laminated). 4. Three-strong, if out of six stamens three are longer (hybrid narcissus). 5. Four-strong, if out of six stamens four are longer (cabbage). The gynoecium is a collection of carpels in a flower that form one or more pistils. The pistil is the main part of the flower, which is necessarily involved in the formation of the fruit. It arises from the carpel or carpels due to the closure and fusion of their edges. Carpels are megasporophylls that bear ovules. Types of pestles: 1. A simple one is formed by one carpel. 2. Compound is formed by two or more fused carpels. The pistil usually consists of three parts: the ovary, the style and the stigma. The ovary is the closed, lower, expanded, hollow, most important part of the pistil, bearing the ovules. Plan of morphological description of a flowering plant 1. Plant name 2. Plant class: monocotyledonous, dicotyledonous 3. Life expectancy: annual, biennial, perennial. 4. Life form: tree, shrub, subshrub, shrub, herbaceous plant. 5. The presence of organs in a given plant. 6. Underground organs: type of root system: fibrous, taproot. Features of the external structure of roots. Presence of modified roots: root vegetables, root tubers. 7. Aboveground shoots: structural features: shortened, elongated. Modifications of the shoot: bulb, rhizome, tuber. Arrangement of buds and leaves: opposite, alternate, whorled. Features of the stems: color, presence and characteristics of lentils, plugs, leaf scars. Stem type: erect, creeping, climbing, clinging, recumbent, ascending. Modifications of stems: spines, leaf-shaped, storage. Kidney structure: color, scales, size. Leaves simple or compound. Presence of leaf modifications. Features of the structure of leaves: size, shape, thickness, color. Shape of the base, top, edge of the leaf. Venation: reticulate (pinnate), parallel, arcuate. Presence of hairs and wax. 8. Availability of flowers: size, color, double or simple perianth. Number of stamens, pistils, petals, sepals. Are they free or fused. Ovary superior or inferior.
Morphological description of plants.
Erect - shoots point straight up.
In coniferous plants, the leaves have the form of needles or scales and are called needle-shaped and scaly
.
colors.
Young plants require lighter soil - equal parts leaf and peat (1:1).
A 
b
-
Figure 31. Shape of the tip of the leaf blade.
Figure 42. Petal shapes. A – sessile, B – marigold 1 – marigold, 2 – limb, 3 – scale covering the nectar pit.whole or branched petal. If the petal is clearly narrowed towards the base, like a leaf into a petiole, then the petal is marigold(cloves, cabbage, etc.). If the base is wide and rounded, the petal is called sedentary(ranunculaceae, roseaceae, etc.) (Fig. 42). Intermediate forms of petals are also often found. Branching of the petals is of two types: in the direction of the longitudinal axis - then they talk about the shape jaggedness, or incisions, petals (double-cut, multipartite); in the direction perpendicular to the surface of the petal - such a branching
Figure 49. Structure of the stamen: filament (1), anthers (2), connective tissue (3).The structure of the stamen filament can be cylindrical (rose hips), narrow oval (onion); by length: thin long, thick short, sessile (violet) - the filament is almost absent. Stamen filaments can be: simple (not branching), have appendages - lateral outgrowths; complex - branching, each branch is crowned with an anther. They can be naked or to varying degrees pubescent (mullein, many carnation). The ligament, or communion, is the part of the filament between the two halves of the anther. It can be flattened, thickened, short (in cereals), long (violet, raven's eye). The anther has two halves (thecae), connected
