But - an alliance. Subordinating conjunctions and allied words Is but a conjunction

Natalia Medvedeva

Larisa Fominykh

Union or union word?

Natalya Medvedeva

Larisa Fominykh

Conjunction or connective word?

The methods of differentiation between connective words and conjunctions which connect a subordinate clause in the complex sentence are analyzed in the article. Different methods of replacement of such words to determine their syntax role taking into account the type of subordinate clause are suggested; the materials for practice are given.

Differentiation of concepts union - union word causes considerable difficulties when teaching the Russian language. The reason for the difficulty is that these differences are based on a number of grammatical concepts. First of all, you need knowledge of those pronouns, which are capable of replacing significant words - members of a sentence - and at the same time acting as means of connecting parts of a complex sentence. However, schoolchildren poorly master the categories of pronouns (in particular, relative pronouns), which then negatively affects the study of the syntax of complex sentences. There is also a group adverbs, which are also allied words in complex constructions, but this feature is not mentioned in school textbooks. Finally, acquaintance with the topic “Union” occurs at the end of studying the “Morphology” section, so there is usually not enough time to practice new concepts and methods of distinguishing them. A simple list of subordinating conjunctions does not guarantee against confusion with allied words.

Existing school textbooks teach students the signs of distinction unions And allied words only in the 9th grade when studying complex sentences, when it comes to the means of connecting the main and subordinate clauses, however, without connection with morphology and without organizing systematic propaedeutic work in previous grades, it is difficult to teach ninth-graders to distinguish between these phenomena.

The first morphological topic, which is directly related to the formation of the concept of “conjunctive word”, is relative pronouns.

In the traditional textbook for grade 6, edited by N.M. Shansky, this group includes words that replace nouns, adjectives and numerals: who, what, which, which, whose, which, how many. The same information is given in the textbook edited by M.M. Razumovskaya and P.A. Lekant. The only difference is that here interrogative and relative pronouns are combined into one category - interrogative-relative. In V.V. Babaytseva’s teaching and learning complex, a group of pronouns-adverbs is classified as pronouns: where, when, where, so, there, because etc. Thus, here the range of relative pronouns is expanded. There are reasons for this: the listed adverbs do not have a specific lexical meaning, but only have a demonstrative function. In all of these manuals, the main feature of relative pronouns is highlighted - to be means of communication simple sentences as part of complex sentences and at the same time act as members of the proposal.

Techniques for recognizing allied words

First appointment : syntactic analysis subordinate clauses and recovery technique(usually from the main clause) that significant word that is replaced in the subordinate clause by a relative pronoun or adverb. If such restoration is possible, we have a word of union before us. It cannot be omitted, as the meaning of the entire sentence will be violated. Examples:

1. Somewhere at the top there was a window through which sunlight was pouring. Where did the light come from? - through which, i.e. words are replaced through the window; This circumstance, therefore, is before us - a relative pronoun, acting as a conjunctive word. An additional sign of a conjunctive word is the presence of a preposition before it.

2.I was ordered to show you everything, What you want. Do you want what? - restoring the word All from the main sentence; this is an addition and What- relative pronoun; hence, What- a union word.

3. I returned from where rarely anyone manages to get out. Get out from where? - from there, this circumstance means a conjunctive word.

4.Suddenly an old man appeared in front of us, What I worked here as a watchman. Who worked? - old man, word What replaces the subject; This is a relative pronoun - a conjunctive word.

5. And little by little my Tatyana now begins to understand more clearly - thank God - that by whom she is condemned to sigh by the imperious fate. (A. Pushkin) Sigh for whom? - according to Onegin(this is clear from the context), therefore, by whom- an object expressed by a relative pronoun; this is a conjunction word.

Second appointment : in the subordinate clause, replace the connecting word with a demonstrative pronoun or adverb:

3.No matter what life teaches us, the heart believes in miracles. (F. Tyutchev) - Life a lot taught us.

4.Wherever I turn my gaze, the gloomy forest turns blue everywhere. (A. Fet) - Everywhere The gloomy forest turns blue.

Third appointment : if the subordinate clause can be turned into an independent interrogative sentence, then the means of communication in a complex sentence is a conjunctive word. As a rule, these are constructions with an indirect question. Examples:

1. Everyone became interested What what was happening there, behind the fence. - What happened there, behind the fence?

2.Explain what you want from me. - What do you want from me?

3. Tell me, magician, favorite of the gods, What will it come true in life with me? (A. Pushkin) - What will happen to me in life?

4.Tell me Where is my horse zealous? (A. Pushkin) - Where is my zealous horse?

Fourth technique - reliance on intonation: logical stress often falls on the conjunctive word, for example:

1.I know What now lies on the scales and What is happening now. (A. Akhmatova) (Words highlighted with logical emphasis are members of the sentence - subjects: lies and occurs something important)

2. Often when communicating with a stranger we don’t know How contact him (i.e. with what words).

3. You better clarify When Should we meet the train (i.e. what time).

4.You can’t even imagine What you did it for me! (done something important).

Techniques for recognizing conjunctions

1. Union is possible lower, the sentence will become non-union, and its meaning will basically not change:

1. Mother deliberately teased Chuk and Huck, because She had a cheerful character. (A. Gaidar)

2. As soon as morning comes, the market square is filled with people.

3. He knew What the basis of everything is morality. (F. Dostoevsky)

4. It rained like buckets, So It was impossible to go out onto the porch.

2. Union is possible replace another, synonymous, union:

1. The old man pretended as if didn't hear my question. -... What didn't hear my question.

2.He came although he was not invited. -... Although he was not invited.

3.The arrival of spring was especially felt in the forest, because of The sticky leaves emitted a pleasant aroma. -... because The sticky leaves emitted a pleasant aroma.

4. The hail drummed so sharply on the roof, exactly someone was throwing peas. -... as if someone was throwing peas.

3.Analyze the structure of a language unit :

Unions can be simple:

1. Don’t fill up the old well, Bye the new one has not been dug. (Last)

2. If If you weren’t on earth, I would have fled to another planet. (A. Reshetov)

Unions can be composite:

1. His conversation is similar to as if someone is scratching the glass.

2. The silence that stood in the low-growing woodland met us, as soon as We left the gates of the estate. (K. Paustovsky)

3.Before as To set off again, Alexei cut sticks from juniper. (B. Polevoy)

4.Although I didn’t have a single free minute, I kept something like a diary. (V. Kaverin)

Conjunctions and allied words

(Comparison table)

union	allied word
1) is a functional part of speech	1) is an independent part of speech (relative pronoun or adverb)
2) is not a member of the proposal	2) answers the question and is a member of the proposal
3) can usually be replaced by a synonymous conjunction	3) can be replaced by an equivalent word from the main part
4) can be omitted	4) cannot be omitted
5) can be compound	5) expressed in one word (sometimes with a preposition)
6) has no logical stress	6) may have logical stress

Subordinate clauses of different types can be attached to the main clause using both conjunctions and allied words

1. Subordinate clauses that are joined only by conjunctions
Type of subordinate clause	unions	examples
1. Reasons	for, since, because, because, due to (due to, in view of) the fact that, thanks to the fact that and etc .	He felt deep embarrassment at having to remain silent about the duel. (K. Paustovsky) Learn from the mistakes of others, because you don’t have enough time to make all the mistakes yourself. . (Aphorism)
2. Goals	so that, in order to, for the purpose of, then in order to and etc.	I’ll open a blank notebook for the music of the poem, so that I can drive away the dark thoughts. (A. Volodeev)
3. Terms	if, if only, once, as soon as possible, when (=if), if	Nothing has been done, if there is anything left undone . (Last)
4. Consequences	So	The water of Lake Baikal is incredibly clear, so you can see through it , like through air.(A. Chekhov)
5. Comparisons	how, exactly, as if, as if, as if, likewise, like that, with what (that) and etc.	The words flowed as if they were born not from slavish memory, but from the heart. ( A. Pushkin) The more a person gives to people and demands less for himself, the better he is. (M. Gorky )
2. Subordinate clauses that are joined only by allied words
Type of subordinate clause	allied words	examples
1. Places	where, where, where	A person only achieves something where he believes in himself . (Aphorism)
2. Connecting	what, why, why, why and etc.	He needed something in the city, which is why he came. (A. Pushkin)
3. Subordinate clauses that are joined by conjunctions and allied words
Type of subordinate clause	conjunctions and allied words	examples
a) Definitive; b) Pronominal attributives	allied words: which, which, whose, where, what, where, etc. unions (rare): what, to, as if and etc. allied words: who, what, to whom	I thought about the man in whose hands my fate was . (A. Pushkin) Here is a meadow where the sweet smell of honey mixed with the smell of swamps. (N. Gumilyov) The reception was such that I didn’t want to come here anymore. Don’t wake up what was dreamed of, don’t worry about what didn’t come true. (S. Yesenin)
2. Explanatory

Union - this is a service part of speech that serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence, as well as individual sentences in the text.

Unions do not change and are not members of the sentence.

By structure, unions are divided into:

1) simple (written without spaces):ah, because ;

2) composite (written with one or more spaces):since, while.

The types of compound conjunctions are

1) double (two-component) conjunctions, the parts of which are located distantly with an obligatory (not so much...as, not only...but And ) or optional (if...then, once...then, barely...how ) the second part,

2) repetitive , that is, such compound doubles that consist of identical parts (neither...nor, then...that, or...or ).

By the nature of the syntactic relations expressed by them,unions are divided intoessay Andsubordinates .

Coordinating Conjunctions connect equal components. They connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence, sentences in the text.

Coordinating Conjunctions have the following ranks of meaning:

1) connecting (meaning ‘both this and that’):and, yes (in meaning 'And' ), neither...nor, as...so and, and...and, not only...but also, as...so and, too, also ;

2) dividing (meaning ‘either this or that’):or, either, then...that, not that...not that, or...or, either...or;

3) adversative (meaning ‘not this, but that’):ah, but, yes (in meaning 'But ’), however, but .

Subordinating conjunctions uniteunequalcomponents and indicate the dependence of one of these components on another. They mainly connect parts of a complex sentence, but can also be used in a simple sentence to connect homogeneous and heterogeneous members.

For example:subordinating conjunction ALTHOUGH connects homogeneous members of a sentence:The book is interesting, Although a little drawn out .

Unions AS, AS IF, AS IF, THAN connect homogeneous and heterogeneous members of a sentence:In winter the night is longer, how day . Pond as if mirror.

The following categories of subordinating conjunctions are distinguished by meaning:

1) temporary:when, while, barely, only ;

2) causal: since, because; for (outdated / bookish);

3) conditional: if, if only (obsolete),if (obsolete);

4) target:so that, in order to, in order to (obsolete);

5) concessional:although, despite the fact that ;

6) consequences: So ;

7) comparative: as, as if, as if, exactly, than ;

8) explanatory:what, how, to .

These lists can be supplemented with compound subordinating conjunctions, for example:while, as if, only, in connection with the fact that, for the purpose of and etc.

Some conjunctions are ambiguous and can be classified into several categories, for exampleto (target and explanatory),When (temporary and conditional).

Morphological analysis of the union

The union is dismantled according to the following plan:

I.Part of speech. Grammatical role (what it is used for).

II.Morphological features: a) coordinating or subordinating; b) simple or compound.

Sample morphological analysis of the union:

We all jumped up from our chairs, but again there was a surprise: the noise of many steps was heard, which meant that the hostess had not returned alone, and this was indeed strange, since she herself had appointed this hour (F. M. Dostoevsky).

I.But - union

II.Coordinative, adversative, simple, connects parts of a complex sentence.

I.What-union

II.Subordinating, explanatory, simple, unchangeable, connects parts of a complex sentence.

I.A - union

II.Coordinative, adversative, simple, unchangeable, connects parts of a complex sentence.

I.Because it's a union

II.Subordinating, reasons, compound, connects parts of a complex sentence.

Mikhail Nikolaevich Peterson (1885–1962) - Soviet linguist, representative of the Moscow Fortunat school. He has written works on Russian syntax and methods of teaching the Russian language, as well as works on other languages ​​- French, Armenian, Lithuanian.

M. N. Peterson was active in teaching. In teaching languages, he used a unique methodology: learning began not with exercises, but with reading and analysis of unadapted text. In the very first lessons, Peterson conducted a comprehensive analysis of one or two words, one phrase. Gradually the pace accelerated, the volume of linguistic information increased, and soon the students were able to independently analyze the most complex texts.

The scientist was an opponent of Marrism, for which he was persecuted (in the press he was called a “representative of pseudoscience”), and in the late 1940s he was forced to leave teaching and practically did not publish. M. N. Peterson was able to return to active teaching only after 1950.

We bring to the attention of the readers of the portal an article by M. N. Peterson “Unions in the Russian Language”, published in the magazine “Russian Language at School” (No. 5, 1952). The article provides a classification of unions and describes their main functions. Even 60 years after it was written, the article will be very useful for teachers of Russian as a native language and as a foreign language.

I. Unions and their varieties

Conjunctions, together with connectives, prepositions and particles, belong to the category of auxiliary (non-independent) words that are opposed to significant (independent) words - parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs, adverbs.

The main difference between these categories of words is that significant parts of speech can be sentence words and sentence members. Function words are used in speech only in conjunction with significant words.

Functional words are of a later origin than significant ones, and arose from significant ones. Depending on the needs of communication, function words continue to develop, expressing more and more new semantic relationships between significant words. In many cases, the origin of function words from significant words is quite clear. Wed, for example, union What and place-name What, pretext near and adverb near. It is more difficult to establish this for such unions as and, a, but.

Conjunctions are function words that express semantic relationships between homogeneous members of a sentence1 or between parts of a complex sentence (main or subordinate clauses).

Conjunctions according to their structure can be divided into simple and compound.

Simple unions can in turn be divided into non-derivatives for a given era, or primitives, such as and, nor, a, but, And derivatives- such as what, so, when, although, if.

Composite unions: That's why that, because, in order that, due to the fact that, so that, so that, since etc. The number of compound unions is increasing.

Of all these unions, the most ancient in origin are simple non-derivatives; they are followed by simple derivatives; Composite unions appeared later than everyone else.

According to their use, conjunctions are single, repeated and paired:

• single: and, ah, but, yes and etc.
• repeated: and - and, neither - nor, then - that, either - either, not that - not that, or - or and etc.
• doubles: not only – but also, although – however, although – but, if – then and etc.

Unions by their role in the sentence can be divided into two categories: some conjunctions express semantic relationships between individual words in a sentence (and, nor, yes, but, but, that, not that, or) , other conjunctions express semantic relationships between the parts of a complex sentence.

There are similarities and differences between these and other unions.

Unions like and, a, but, They are also used to connect parts of a complex sentence. Their meaning is the same in both cases. For example:

AND get yourself together And fit in
AND in such a time of trouble
Also be a mistress
Agile and dashing.
(Tvardovsky)

AND the fields are blooming,
AND the forests are noisy,
AND lie in the ground
Piles of gold.
(Nikitin)

Here in both cases there is an enumeration.

The same parallel examples can be given for other unions. However, there are more differences between these and other unions.

There are many conjunctions that are used only to express semantic relationships between parts of complex sentences: what if, because, when, although and etc.

Semantic relations expressed by complex sentences with conjunction And, much richer than the semantic relationships expressed by the same union between the individual words of a sentence (see examples below).

Conjunctions that express semantic relationships only between parts of a complex sentence are of more recent origin. Along with the increase in the use of complex sentences, which is caused by the need to express increasingly complex relationships between phenomena, the number of conjunctions is increasing and their meaning is becoming more diverse.

The number of conjunctions expressing semantic relationships between individual words in a sentence is also increasing, but not to the same extent.

Thus, both unions are in constant interaction.

The semantic relations expressed by both conjunctions can be described in detail only in syntax. Here the most necessary information will be given, first about the meaning of conjunctions connecting individual words in a sentence, and then about the meaning of conjunctions connecting parts of complex sentences.

II. Unions expressing semantic relations
between individual words in a sentence

The most common conjunction And. More than half of all cases occur in combinations with this union. Those semantic relations that are expressed by the conjunction And, most often found in our language practice, which is closely related to our social activities.

According to the semantic relations they express, unions can be divided into four groups:

1) conjunctions expressing transfer (and, nor, yes, or, then );

2) unions expressing opposition (and, but, not only - but also and etc.);

3) conjunctions expressing comparison (how, what );

4) conjunctions expressing target (to ).

Some of these conjunctions express other semantic relationships, which will be shown later.

1. Unions expressing enumeration

This group includes connecting and dividing unions.

AND

Union And expresses a list of words that are in homogeneous relationships and denote various objects, signs, phenomena.

AND I want to live And drink, And There is,
I want warmth and light...
(Tvardovsky)

Upon re-union and – and, In addition to enumeration, amplification is expressed.

AND sling, And arrow, And crafty dagger
The years are kind to the winner.
(Pushkin)

Union And may have the meaning of the opposite (see below).

NI

Union neither (repeated) expresses the same enumeration in negative sentences (with strengthening):

Then he saw clearly
That in the village the boredom is the same,
At least not neither streets, neither palaces,
Neither kart, neither points, neither poems.
(Pushkin)

I love my fatherland, but with a strange love!
My reason will not defeat her,
Neither glory bought with blood
Neither peace full of proud trust,
Neither cherished legends from dark antiquity
No joyful dreams stir within me.
(Lermontov)

YES

Union Yes usually gives the statement a conversational character.

Dog, man, Yes cat, Yes falcon
They once swore to each other eternal friendship.
(Krylov)

The same conjunction is used when repeating a word for emphasis:

- You know, everyone scolds our steppe, they say it’s boring, red, hills Yes hills, as if she were homeless, but I love her (Fadeev).

Union Yes also serves to express opposition (see below).

Union yes and has a connecting connotation of meaning.

The caretaker stood, stood - yes and let's go(Pushkin).

OR

Union or serves to express an enumeration with the connotation of a choice from two or more possibilities:

These are our “lags” ( or"migi" or“Yaki”), they said(Fadeev).

Repeated conjunctions are used with the same meaning either - either-bo, whether - whether, whether- or:

I'm with strangers or timid, or put on airs(M. Gorky).

The district official walk by - I was already wondering where he was going: for the evening whether to some brother of his or straight to your home(Gogol).

THAT

Union That (repeated) serves to express the enumeration of objects or phenomena that exist not simultaneously, but alternately:

Lieutenants That appeared in the city That disappeared, many new ones always arrived...(Fadeev)

All the girls, raising their heads, listened to the intermittent That thin, axial, That low, rumbling, rumble, trying to see the plane in the white-hot air(He's the same one).

NOT THAT

Union NotThat (repeated) expresses a list of objects or phenomena whose existence is assumed and one of which excludes the other:

In all her movements it was noticeable not that negligence, not that fatigue(Turgenev).

And she seemed to come to life, and she herself was born with some kind of not that hope for something not that idea(Goncharov).

A repeated conjunction is used with the same meaning either:

...And it smelled like a fresh, cold mouth either by the wind either distant, barely perceptible smell of fresh steppe hay(Sholokhov).

The meaning of an enumeration is expressed by some pairwise conjunctions, for example both - and:

Siberia has many features. How in nature, so and in human morals(Goncharov).

2. Unions expressing opposition(a, but, yes, however, but and etc.)

After all, it is not marble, not alabaster, A alive, but so cold!(Fadeev).

A crow perched on a spruce tree,
I was just about ready to have breakfast,
Yes got thoughtful...
(Krylov)

I hesitated a little however sat down(Turgenev).

They fight a little
But They don’t even put drunken things into their mouths.
(Krylov)

I wanted to travel around the whole world,
AND didn't travel a hundredth of a mile.
(Griboyedov)

Various shades of opposition and comparison are expressed by paired unions Not only - but (and), not only – but (and), not so much - How many and etc.

They are already Not only by appearance, a and distinguished between their own and German aircraft by sound(Fadeev).

3. Conjunctions expressing comparison (how, what)

These conjunctions do not express relations between homogeneous members of sentences.

Seryozha Tyulenin was the youngest in the family and grew up How grass in the steppe(Fadeev).

And the father, who wheezed, whistled and blew at him more, how on any of his children, loved him more, how any of the others(Fadeev).

4. Conjunctions expressing purpose (to)

Yuri stood behind the truck, to look at the sky(A. Tolstoy).

Union to also expresses a relationship not between homogeneous members of the sentence.

III. Unions expressing semantic relations
between parts of a complex sentence

In first place in terms of frequency and here is the conjunction And, followed by ah, but, what, to and others. Union predominance And due to its ambiguity. The usage of individual conjunctions varies depending on the nature of the text. The material is grouped by meaning.

1. Transfer

Sentences with conjunction And denote enumeration of either simultaneous or sequential events.

Their faces came so close among the foliage that their breath mingled, And they looked straight into each other's eyes(Fadeev).

And this spring they graduated from school, said goodbye to their teachers and organizations, And the war, as if it was waiting for them, looked straight into their eyes(Fadeev).

Complex sentences with conjunction And may have other meanings.

1) The first part of a complex sentence expresses the basis, the cause, the other – the consequence.

Poor Ashik-Kerib had little hope of getting her hand, And he became sad, like the winter sky(Lermontov).

2) The first part of a complex sentence expresses the condition, the second – the consequence:

He will give a sign - And everyone is busy(Pushkin).

3) The second part expresses the opposite of what the first expresses:

I love you, And you will never be mine(Lermontov).

Everyone knew her And no one noticed...(Pushkin)

Enumeration is also expressed by conjunctions Yes (the usage of this conjunction is very low), yes and (with connecting meaning), repeated no no (in negative sentences), whether - whether, or, either - or (with the meaning of choice, separation), That - That (indicates alternation), not that - not that (with a hint of assumption and exclusion of one of the phenomena), also, too and etc.

Plates and cutlery rattle,
Yes The glass rings.
(Pushkin)

Boris doesn't want to help me yes and I don't want to contact him(L. Tolstoy).

Neither the arrows didn't fly neither the guns didn't roar(Krylov).

Guilty whether there was a teacher or it was the student’s fault, but every day the same thing happened again(L. Tolstoy).

That Cold, That very hot,
That the sun will hide That shines too bright.
(Krylov)

The strange old man spoke very drawlingly, the sound of his voice Also amazed me(Turgenev).

2. Opposition

a, but, yes, however, same, but, Although denote opposition of varying strength.

Union A used when comparing various phenomena:

The same striking contrast exists in the development of culture in Soviet Azerbaijan and Iran. Illiteracy has been eliminated in Azerbaijan, A In Iran, illiterates make up about 85 percent of the population. In Azerbaijan, there is one higher education institution for every 163 thousand people of the population, A in Iran - by 3.4 million people. In Azerbaijan there is one doctor for every 525 people. population, A in Iran – by 11.3 thousand people(“Pravda,” December 30, 1949, “The Indestructible Union of Soviet Republics,” p. 1).

A stronger opposition is expressed by the conjunction But ; it is strengthened by negation, which is almost always found in one of the parts of a complex sentence:

You know, I'm not afraid of anything in the world, I'm not afraid of any struggle, difficulty, torment, But if only I knew what to do...(Fadeev).

A rather strong opposition is expressed by the union Yes :

Vladimir would write odes,
Yes Olga didn't read them.
(Pushkin)

It would be better for me to leave him and hide in the forest, Yes It was a pity to part with him - and the prophet rewarded me(Lermontov).

Unions give a hint of reinforcement however, on the other hand:

The eye eagerly seeks a light, however every turn of the river deceives our hopes(Korolenko).

The windows in the house were closed, the door same the porch was wide open. (Goncharov).

Let's assume he knows the forest paths.
Prancing on horseback, not afraid of water,
But midges eat him mercilessly,
But he is familiar with labors from an early age.
(Nekrasov)

Oppositions of different strengths are expressed by the union Although (though):

AND though it was restless -
Remained unharmed
Under oblique, three-layer fire,
Under the hinged and direct...
(Tvardovsky).

The opposition is stronger when in the second part - but yes:

Although in her glances I read something wild and suspicious, Although there was something vague in her smile, But such is the power of prejudice...(Lermontov).

Though the eye sees Yes the tooth is numb.
(Krylov)

Union though called concessionary, but when revealing the meaning of this term, they usually indicate opposition.

Unions what to and much more rare as if, as if, as if usually called explanatory, associating this term with a verb explain yourself. The meaning of this term is that complex sentences with these conjunctions express the content of speech, thought or feeling attributed to one or another character, as opposed to “alien speech” conveyed verbatim.

Combinations with conjunctions as if, as if it would be as if convey this content presumably.

WHAT

In the hallway... a fat woman came out and answered my questions, What the old caretaker died a year ago, What a brewer moved into his house, and What she is a brewer's wife(Pushkin).

Complex sentence with conjunction What also denotes the degree of manifestation of a characteristic:

His comrades greeted him with such sincere joy, What Something fell away from his soul that did not allow him to sleep, eat, or breathe(A. Tolstoy).

TO

Meanwhile the horses arrived, and the caretaker ordered to immediately, without feeding them, they harnessed them to the newcomer’s wagon(Pushkin).

- Chocolate? – the captain was surprised and took the tube out of his mouth. - The first time I've heard, to a senior lieutenant in the bare steppe needed chocolate(A. Tol-wait).

Complex sentences with conjunction to also indicate the goal:

A so that the mouse race did not harm him,
So he created a police force of cats.
(Krylov)

More often this meaning is found in combination with the indefinite form of the verb:

Donetsk hot winds and scorching sun seem to be on purpose, to to highlight the physical nature of each of the girls, one was gilded, another was darkened, and another was calcined, as in a fiery font, arms and legs, face and neck to the very shoulder blades(Fadeev).

AS IF

You look and don’t know whether its majestic width is walking or not, and it seems like as if it's all made of glass, and as if a blue mirror road, immeasurably wide, endlessly long, soars and flows across the green world(Gogol).

She dreams as if she
Walking through a snowy meadow.
(Pushkin)

Suddenly it seemed to me as if a string rang weakly and plaintively in the room(Turgenev).

4. Temporary relationships

Complex sentences with conjunctions when, how, while, barely express temporary relationships with different shades. The same relationships are expressed by a large number of compound conjunctions: as soon as, suddenly, as soon as, since, after, only, barely, as soon as, before etc. Some of these conjunctions indicate the simultaneity of two actions), others - to the preceding action, others - to the subsequent action (sometimes with an additional connotation of the rapid succession of one action after another). The meaning of the temporal correlation of actions can be very diverse. We give examples of only some of the conjunctions (with simpler meanings).

WHEN

When blue clouds will roll across the sky like mountains, the black forest will shake to its roots, the oak trees will crack, and lightning, breaking between the clouds, will illuminate the whole world at once - then the Dnieper is terrible!(Gogol)

HOW

I How I looked at the steppe, where we sang so many songs, and at this sunset, and barely held back my tears(Fadeev).

BYE

Complex sentences with conjunctions bye, bye, bye express that one event happened before another:

And the lonely figure of Nikolai Ivanovich loomed for a long time in the depths of the street, Bye the tram didn't close it(A. Tolstoy).

Bye doesn't require a poet
To the sacred sacrifice Apollo,
In the cares of the vain world
He is cowardly immersed.
(Pushkin)

BARELY

Complex sentences with conjunction barely express events that quickly follow one another:

But barely he entered, when the sight of a new miracle made him grab his hand at the leather coat of the ship's commander(V. Kataev).

5. Causal relations

Complex sentences with conjunctions So how, because, for, thanks to the fact that, due to the fact that and some others express the reason:

Dad even regretted that they put a coat on me, because it was very hot, like summer(V. Kataev).

When crossing fast rivers, one should not look at the water, for Immediately your head will spin(Lermontov).

6. Condition

Complex sentences with conjunctions if, if, if - if, once, if, when, if and others express a condition and the consequence arising from it. Conjunctions with a particle would express the presumptive condition:

He is my father.
AND If I have to,
I will give all my blood for him.
(A. Kuleshov)

How well could people live in the world, if they just wanted if they just understood!(Fadeev).

- Don't mess with her. If“she’s already put on such a cap, you can’t over-cap her,” Shura Dubrovina told Maya(Fadeev).

He and I walked through dozens of villages,
Where, how, where by death.
AND once he walked but didn’t get there,
So I have to get there.
(Tvardovsky)

A When the whole people rises up for the liberation patriotic war - then woe to the enemy! Woe!(V. Kataev)

Other conjunctions play a comparatively lesser role in expressing semantic relationships between parts of a complex sentence: concessional (let it be true, let it be true, for nothing, despite the fact that), comparative (how, than, rather than, as if, as if, exactly, just like) consequences (So), explanatory (that is, namely). Here are some examples:

Let I am weak, my sword is strong.
(Zhukovsky)

He was clearly visible for nothing that rode in the shadows(Turgenev).

As if mother over her son's grave,
A sandpiper moans over the dull plain.
(Nekrasov)

He laughed exactly the steel rang(M. Gorky).

The mistress's words were interrupted by a strange hiss, So the guest was scared(Gogol).

Our garden is dying, strangers are already in charge of it, that is the very thing that the poor father was so afraid of happens(Chekhov).

IV. Conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence

We are not talking about repeated and paired conjunctions, but about single ones, which are usually not used at the beginning of a sentence.

Most often, conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence are found in dialogical speech, expressing an attitude towards what is said by the interlocutor:

“How Tanya has grown! It's been a long time
I think I baptized you?
A I took it in my arms!
A I was pulling my ears so hard.
A I fed him gingerbread!”
(Pushkin)

- Quiet. Do you hear?
- I hear. The snow is rustling. Why is it good if it's Nord-East?
– Because You can't see anything in the yard now.
(V. Kataev)

Russian character! Go ahead and describe it... Should I talk about heroic deeds? But There are so many of them that you will be at a loss as to which one to prefer.(A. Tolstoy).

The last example is a monologue, but it is conducted like a dialogue. In this way, conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence could penetrate monologue speech. A sentence is rarely used in isolation in monologue speech. More often it is combined with other sentences. Conjunctions are at the beginning of sentences and express relations to neighboring sentences:

Alexander Fedorovich was an old Donetsk miner, a wonderful carpenter. While still a young guy, a native of the Tambov province, he began going to the mines to earn money. AND in the deep depths of the Donetsk land, in the most terrible screes and slides, his wonderful hatchet, which in his hands played and sang and pecked like a golden cockerel, secured a lot of excavations(Fadeev).

They picked her up on the road. At first they thought that the girl was lying dead, and Grisha swerved the steering wheel so as not to crush her bare feet. But she raised her head, the wind ruffled her hair like scorched grass(A. Tolstoy).

These are the most important conjunctions and their role in the Russian language. A more detailed disclosure of the semantic relationships expressed by individual conjunctions can be given, as indicated above, on the specific material of the syntax of simple and complex sentences.

1 Except unions how, what And to, about which see below.

Conjunctive words are pronominal words that serve, along with conjunctions, as a way of expressing a subordinating connection and, unlike conjunctions, act as a member of a subordinate clause. As allied words there can be interrogative-relative pronouns that have inflectional forms (noun pronouns, numeral pronouns, adjective pronouns) and unchangeable pronouns (pronouns-adverbs).

Conjunctive words: what is this? Morphological characteristics

Grammar in the Russian language clearly defines those words that can be used as allied words. Let's consider the first definition, which fixes a closed list of allied words and distinguishes between their syntactic and morphological features. So, how can exclusively interrogative pronouns be used? These include:

• pronominal adverbs (where, where, when, how much, from where, how, why, why, why);
• pronominal adjectives (which, which, what, which, whose, which);
• noun pronouns (what, who);
• pronominal numeral (how many).

In addition, allied words are pronominal words that simultaneously have the properties of significant (independent) and

According to the ability to change words, allied words are divided into two types: changeable and unchangeable. The former include the words what, how many, whose, which, which, which, which, what, who, and the latter include all pronominal adverbs without exception. That is, why is a conjunction word that does not change. But what is it - a short adjective, modifiable by number and gender. What, who, how many are pronouns that are declined only by cases. The remaining changeable allied words can be declined according to cases, numbers, and genders.

Syntactic functions of the allied word

Conjunctive words in Russian can perform the following roles in a sentence:

• Subject. Some thermometers show thirty-three degrees, but there are others that show thirty-six. He stood outside the door, listening to everything that was happening there.
• Predicate. Based on these signs, we determined what kind of lighthouse we have. He wondered who this old man was.
• Addition. He sat on the windowsill and listened to what the soldier said. The land mentioned in the letter is Severnaya Zemlya.
• Definition. I wrote on the first page what books I needed to read.
• Circumstance of the place. She glanced at the window, outside of which the weather changed almost every minute. He immediately began to figure out where to change it.
• Circumstance of the place. He hid in a corner, listened attentively, waiting for him to be allowed to go home.
• Circumstance of the course of action. The girl explained how to find the way.
• Circumstance of measure and degree. Now it is clearly visible how truthful his testimony was given to him by his confused feelings.
• Circumstance of the reason. he was afraid that his grandmother would understand why all her relatives had gathered around her.
• Circumstance of the goal. He understood why the old books were collected here.

The difference between conjunctions and allied words

In addition to allied words, conjunctions can be used in the main and subordinate parts. A conjunction is a part of speech that is not part of a sentence. Allied words differ from conjunctions in that:

• these words are members of a sentence (they did not take their eyes off the path that leads to the forest);
• allied words are members of a subordinate clause, so they cannot be eliminated without changing the meaning (you cannot say: “They did not take their eyes off the path that leads to the forest”);
• may fall on allied words (we know what she will do tomorrow);
• after conjunctive words you can use particles namely, same (we know what she will do tomorrow; we know what exactly she will do tomorrow);
• allied words can be replaced by demonstrative pronouns and pronominal adverbs (we know what she will do tomorrow; we know: she will do this tomorrow).

The main thing is to remember that individually these techniques will not always help to recognize the conjunction and the allied word. Since all signs rely only on the external expression of important internal differences, not a single sign can be considered universal. Only with the combined use of the above criteria or in different combinations, it is possible to determine that a subordinate clause is attached to the main part - a conjunction or a conjunction word.

Subordinating conjunctions and allied words

These connecting words connect the subordinate clause and the main clause, while the conjunction, acting as an auxiliary part of speech, does not act as a member of the subordinate clause, but the conjunctive word, acting as a significant part of speech, is.

In turn, the allied word can act as both a main and a secondary member of a sentence. At the same time, it is impossible to identify the meaning of the subordinate clause and the role of the conjunctive word in it. This error is quite common. Therefore, you need to pose the correct question from the main clause to the subordinate clause. And when the role of the allied word is determined, the question must be posed directly in the sentence itself from the words or phrases to which the subordinating allied words relate. Examples:

This is the house where we used to live.

This is a house that was built this year.

This is a house that was built in the twentieth century.

In some cases, allied words and conjunctions may overlap. Such connectives include four words, which can be conjunctions or allied words. Namely: what, when, how, with what.

But it is worth knowing that the conjunctive word what, as well as the conjunctive words whose, how many, which, why, who, from where, why, where, where, under no circumstances can be conjunctions.

Conjunctive word what

The word that is a conjunctive word if it acts as a member of a sentence:

• subordinate clause (the book they gave me yesterday turned out to be incredibly interesting);
• subordinate pronominal attribute (I love too much in the world everything that clothes the soul in flesh);
• (we don't know what will happen to us);
• (no matter what you tell her, she has the answer to everything);
• subordinate clause (the player works great, which makes me happy).

In such sentences, the word that is a relative pronoun.

Conjunctive word when

When it can be classified as an allied word if it is used as a connected word in a sentence:

• subordinate attributive (do you remember the time when we met in the garden?);
• subordinate explanatory clause (Anna accepted my news calmly and only asked what would happen next);
• subordinate tense (she woke up when it was completely light).

Conjunctive word like

A word can be classified as an allied word if it appears in a sentence:

• subordinate explanatory clause (many expressed their opinions on how best to complete this task);
• subordinate mode of action (I cannot tell about the artist’s life path the way she will do it herself);
• subordinate degree (it became so warm as it only happens in summer);
• subordinate clause (no matter how entertaining this computer game is, visiting the theater is much more interesting).

Conjunctive word than

What will a conjunctive word be if it is a member of such sentences:

• subordinate pronominal attributive (Ivan, what she is unhappy with, on the contrary, I am satisfied with everything);
• subordinate explanatory clause (how do you think this film will end?);
• subordinate clause (she was a good, honest, pure person who loved him, which he admired).

§1. General characteristics of unions

A conjunction is a service part of speech that serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence and individual sentences in the text. The uniqueness of unions lies in the role they perform. This role is the expression of coordinating and subordinating syntactic connections. Unlike prepositions, conjunctions are not associated with the grammatical features of other words. Why? Because they serve for higher-level syntactic connections.

Conjunctions are an unchangeable part of speech. The union is not a member of the proposal. Conjunctions are a class that unites dissimilar words. Unions differ in formation, structure, function, and meaning.

§2. Formation of unions

Like prepositions, conjunctions according to the method of formation are divided into non-derivative and derivative.

• Non-derivatives unions: and, but, or, how, what and etc.
• Derivatives formed differently:
  • connection of non-derivative conjunctions: as if, but also, since
  • by combining an index word and a simple conjunction: in order to, in order to
  • connecting a conjunction with a pronoun and a word with a generalized meaning: while, until
    from other parts of speech: although to

§3. Alliance structure

According to their structure, conjunctions are divided into simple and compound:

• Simple:and, and, but, or, that, so that, how, if, however, but, also, also, moreover, moreover etc., consisting of one word.
• Composite: since, while, as soon as, due to the fact that, due to the fact that. Compounds are divided into double and repeating: not only..., but also..., neither... nor..., then... then...

§4. Function (role) of unions. Places by value

The function (role) of conjunctions is the expression of syntactic connections: coordinating and subordinating.

A coordinating connection is a connection that expresses equal relationships between elements.

Coordinating conjunctions. Places by value

1. Connectors: and, yes (=and: cabbage soup and porridge), and...and..., not only... but also, like... so and, too, also
2. Dividing: or, either, then...that, not that...not that, or...or, either...either
3. Nasty: A, But, Yes(=but: good-looking, but poor), however, but
4. Gradational*: not only, but also, not so much... as, not so much... but
5. Explanatory*: that is, namely
6. Connecting*: also, also, yes and, and moreover, and

* Traditionally, sentences with a coordinating connection are considered more accessible to understanding and are introduced into teaching earlier than others: already in elementary school. Then the children are taught to distinguish the meanings of conjunctions. Therefore, the material is presented in a simplified form. This is how the idea is learned that there are three types of coordinating conjunctions: connecting, disjunctive and adversative. In high school, children are faced with a wider range of phenomena that need to be understood and realized. For example, everyone should be able to distinguish and write conjunctions correctly too, also and combinations the same, the same, you need to know how to punctuate sentences with different conjunctions. But the question of what kind of unions these are does not arise. However, gradational, explanatory and connecting conjunctions are very frequent; they can be found in test tasks. Therefore, I advise high school students and graduates to pay special attention to them.

A subordinate relationship is a connection of unequal components, in which one of the components depends on the other. This is how parts of complex sentences are connected.

Subordinating conjunctions. Places by value

1. Temporary: when, while, barely, only, while, just, barely, barely
2. Causal: since, because, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, for (obsolete), due to the fact that
3. Conditional: if (if only, if, if - obsolete), if, once, whether, as soon
4. Target: in order to, in order to, in order to (obsolete), with the aim of, in order to, then in order to
5. Consequences: so
6. Concessive: although, despite the fact that
7. Comparatives: as, as if, as if, exactly, than, as if, similarly as, rather than (obsolete)
8. Explanatory: what, how, to

Attention:

Some conjunctions are multi-valued and can, performing different functions, be included in different categories. For example, compare:

Tell him, to he didn’t call: I won’t be at home.
to - explanatory union

To To please his mother, he washed the dishes that were left in the sink in the morning.
to- target union

When The teacher entered the class, Mishka was talking on the phone.
When- temporary union

I don't know, When he will call.
When- explanatory union

When he doesn’t want to understand anything, how can you explain it to him?
When- conditional union

Attention:

Many conjunctions have homonymous forms, which creates problems in distinguishing them and spelling them correctly. See Unified State Exam: "A, B, C" - everything for preparation. A18. Integrated, hyphenated, separate spelling of words.

Test of strength

Check your understanding of this chapter.

Final test

1. What are unions used for?

   • To connect words in a sentence
   • To connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and individual sentences in the text

2. Is there a difference between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions?

3. Is it correct to assume that simple conjunctions are coordinating, and compound conjunctions are subordinating?

4. Is it correct to assume that simple conjunctions are used in simple sentences, and compound conjunctions in complex ones?

5. What syntactic connection expresses the equal relations of elements?

   • Essay
   • Subordinating

6. What syntactic connection expresses the unequal relations of elements, in which one depends on the other?

   • Essay
   • Subordinating

7. Do coordinating or subordinating conjunctions express a coordinating relationship?

   • Essays
   • Subordinates

8. Do coordinating or subordinating conjunctions express a subordinating relationship?

   • Essays
   • Subordinates

9. Are there polysemantic conjunctions in the Russian language?

10. Is it true that many conjunctions have homonyms?

11. The following conjunctions are derivative or non-derivative: and, but, or, how - ?

    • Derivatives
    • Non-derivative