Spelling (from the Greek orthos - “correct”, graphe - “writing”) is an applied science, a system of generally accepted writing rules for a language.
In the spelling system, there are three main principles for writing phonemes: etymological (historical), morphological and phonetic.
Let's look at each in more detail using practical examples:
1. Etymological (historical). It is explained by the prevailing
over centuries, the rules of writing that this moment are not subject to rigorous analysis. Example: WATAGO, Birch - the etymological principle of writing a phoneme, since it is impossible to verify it. Only the second phoneme is checked. From the history of the language it is known that the sound [у] used to be hard, so the letter “a” was always written after it. Example: absorb. In the given example there is a deviation from the syllabic principle of graphics.
1. Morphological (morphematic). This principle lies in the fact that the spelling of a word or part of a word, taken as the main one, is preserved in all situations, that is, that in certain cases the word is written not as it is pronounced, but as it is written in other cases. This writing principle is indirectly supporting (a weak position is checked through a strong one). Example: six, slipped - a morphological principle of spelling, moreover, in the first case there is a discrepancy with the syllabic principle of graphics, and in the second D - an unnecessary morpheme. It is important to make a reservation that where “e” is written there is a morphematic principle.
2. Phonetic (phonemic). In phonetic writing, each letter retains the meaning assigned to it in the alphabet, and the word is written as it is pronounced.
Example: mysterious, beautiful, cutie, etc.
It is important to note that the etymological principle is based on various types of reforms of the Russian language. The brightest of them are from 1917 and 1956. During this time, the following approximate changes occurred:
1. For adjectives and participles in the genitive and accusative cases, instead of - ago, - ago, the endings are written - oho.
2. In the plural in the nominative and accusative cases of the feminine and neuter gender, in endings instead of - ыя, - я it began to be written - ы, - е.
3. In the genitive case of the singular, instead of “ee”, “ee” began to be pronounced and written.
4. Instead of going, go.
5. Instead of getting out, get out.
6. In the words tsybik, tsynovka, tsyrkul, tsyfir, the letter “Y” was replaced by “I”.
7. In the words whisper, acorn, click, the letter “O” was replaced by E.
8. In the word ruchenka, the letter “E” was replaced with “O”.
9. That is, they began to write separately and in full - together.
10. During the time it began to write together.
° Test questions!
1. Define spelling.
2. What principles of writing exist in the spelling system?
3. What is the etymological principle?
4. Tell us about the morphological principle of writing.
5. Reveal the essence of the phonetic principle.
6. Give examples of changes that have occurred in the Russian language over the past hundred years.
phonetic grammatical letter spelling
Modern Russian spelling is based on the Code of Rules published in 1956. The rules of the Russian language are reflected in Russian grammars and spelling dictionaries. Special school spelling dictionaries are published for schoolchildren.
Language changes as society changes. Many new words and expressions, both our own and borrowed, appear. The rules for writing new words are established by the Spelling Commission and recorded in spelling dictionaries. The most complete modern spelling dictionary was compiled under the editorship of the spelling scientist V.V. Lopatina (M., 2000).
Russian orthography is a system of rules for writing words.
Spelling sections are large groups spelling rules associated with different types of difficulties in conveying words in writing. Each section of spelling is characterized by certain principles underlying the spelling system.
It consists of five main sections:
- 1) transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters;
- 2) continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spellings of words and their parts;
- 3) the use of upper and lowercase letters;
- 4) transferring part of a word from one line to another;
- 5) graphic abbreviations of words.
Spelling standards are governed by certain principles.
First principle- phonemic, second- phonetic. The phonemic principle of writing is that each phoneme is expressed by the same letter, no matter what position it appears in. The phonetic principle is that letters represent actually pronounced sounds. In accordance with this, phonemic and phonetic spellings coincide in strong positions, but differ in weak ones.
Third and fourth principles spellings - etymological and traditional-historical - are based on the fact that the letter does not reflect current state, and the past: bees instead of bees; Church Slavonic assistant instead of the etymological pomochnik or phonemic pomoshnik.
Fifth and sixth principles- morphological and symbolic - consist in the desire to convey language not through phonetics. At the same time, morphological spellings reflect grammar, bypassing phonetics, and symbolic spellings tend to distinguish lexical homonyms, phonetically, as a rule, indistinguishable. The symbolic principle of writing is associated with the manifestation of a unique ideography.
In any spelling there is a combination of different principles, but the leading principle stands out.
The leader in the orthography of the Russian language is MORPHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE, the essence of which is as follows: morpheme(significant part of the word: root, prefix, suffix, ending) retains a single letter spelling, although during pronunciation the sounds included in this morpheme may change. Thus, the root bread in all related words is written the same way, but is pronounced differently depending on the place in the word occupied by the vowel or consonant sounds, cf.: [hl"ieba], [hl"bavos]; the prefix pod- in the words saw and knock is the same, despite the different pronunciation, cf.: [пътп"л"it"] [padb"it"]; the adjectives mocking and boastful have the same suffix -liv-; the unstressed ending and the stressed ending are designated the same: in the table - in the book, big - great, blue - mine, etc.
Guided by this very principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the Morpheme is in a strong position (under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), those. would be clearly marked.
The role of the morphological principle in spelling is great, if we keep in mind that in the Russian language there is a widely developed system of intramorphemic alternations due to various reasons.
Along with the morphological principle, there is also a PHONETIC PRINCIPLE, according to which words or their parts are written the way they are pronounced.
For example, prefixes with z change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix: before a voiced consonant, the letter z is heard and written in prefixes (without-, voz-, from-, niz-, raz-, roz-, through-, through-) , and before the voiceless consonant in the same prefixes the letter s is heard and written, cf.: to object - to exclaim, to beat - to drink, to overthrow - to send down, etc.
The action of the phonetic principle also explains the writing of vowels o - e after sibilants in suffixes and endings different parts speech, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on the stress, cf.: shred - knife, brocade - nomadic, candle - cloud, etc.
The root vowel and after Russian consonant prefixes turns into ы and is denoted by this letter, also in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. written as it is heard and pronounced: prehistory, pre-July, draw, play out, etc.
The HISTORICAL, or TRADITIONAL PRINCIPLE also operates in our spelling, according to which words are written as they were written before, in the old days.
Thus, the writing of vowels and, а, у after sibilants is an echo of the most ancient state of the phonetic system of the Russian language. Dictionary words, as well as borrowed ones, are written using the same principle. Such spellings can only be explained using the historical laws of language development as a whole.
In modern orthography there is also a PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIATED SPELLING (semantic principle), according to which words are written depending on their lexical meaning, cf.: burn (verb) and burn (noun), company (group of people) and campaign (any event) , ball (dance evening) and score (unit of assessment).
In addition to those mentioned in spelling, it is necessary to note the PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUOUS, HYPHEN AND SEPARATE WRITING: Difficult words we write together or with a hyphen, and combinations of words - separately.
To summarize, we can say that the variety of rules of Russian spelling is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of phonetic and grammatical structure the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and on the other hand, interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.
What is spelling? Spelling(from Greek spelling) is a set of norms or rules of practical writing: rules for using letters of the alphabet when writing words, their forms and combinations; and rules for writing words and phrases, regardless of the letters included in their spelling.
A discussion of the principles of Russian orthography should begin with a definition of the principles of graphics, i.e. letters. The principles of graphics regulate the ways of conveying sounding speech in writing, while the principles of spelling provide rules for conveying sounding speech in graphic symbols. In other words, graphics are primary in relation to spelling.
A.A. Reformatsky identifies 6 paired principles governing the norms for the use of letters of the alphabet:
a. Phonemic and phonetic.
b. Etymological and traditional-historical.
c. Morphological and symbolic.
Phonemic principle of spelling is that each phoneme is expressed by the same letter, regardless of the position in which it falls.
For example, oak-oak, syllable-syllable, garden-garden: phonemes [b], [d], [d] are reflected in writing the same way, although they sound differently - in forms oak, syllable, garden– voiced consonants, in forms oak, syllable, garden– consonants are deafened.
Phonetic principle of spelling is that the letters represent actually pronounced sounds. There are many examples of words in the Russian language that are written the same way as they are heard. Best example – Italian language, where alphabetic associations are complex, but the fundamental principle of spelling is phonetic:
For example: parlo – parla, Sono di Roma, molto, forte, bene.
Another example of a language in which the fundamental principle of spelling is phonetic is the German language, in which about 80% of words are written as they are heard, with due respect to the rules of the alphabet.
Let's return to the phonetic principle in Russian orthography. Considering the above examples, we can say that in a strong position (when the consonant is voiced - oak, syllable, garden) phonetic and phonemic principles of writing coincide, but in weak writing they do not.
Let's look at another example:
Som And myself are written identically both phonemically and phonetically, however in the phrase I caught the catfish myself– spelling is phonemic, since strong positions determine distinction [O] And [A], and phonetically this statement would have the following spelling: I paid it myself.
In Russian writing, the phonetic principle underlies the spelling of prefixes in [z]: unemployed But hopeless, untalented, But dumb, repay – chant, beat up – drink. Phonetic spellings s after ts: gypsy, chicken, cucumbers, foxes, although according to the phonemic principle it would be necessary to write here And.
A.A. Reformatsky formulates Russian spelling rules, based on the phonemic principle: write unstressed vowels in the same way as under stress: water, water carrier - water, lumberjack - forest; always write voiced and voiceless consonants in any position, as before vowels, sonorant consonants and [V] And [V']: fruit - fruit, raft - raft, mongrel - mongrels, Mashka - Mashek.
Etymological and traditional-historical principles spellings are based on the fact that the letter reflects not the current state, but the past.
Etymological principle really corresponds to the language in its past, for example, spelling with the letter e: bees, women, went, millet, because in these positions in the Russian language there was once a phoneme [uh]. However, in modern language in such cases the phonemic principle is applied: O after a hissing and soft consonant - cf. seam, zhokh, tap, ratchet, sword.
Etymological spellings in English language:
Traditional historical principle of spelling preserves precisely the tradition of writing. For example, the Church Slavonic spelling of the word assistant With sch, which etymologically should be written through h, since the word goes back to Russian help (helper), and phonemically through w – assistant. Also writing unstressed endings of adjectives –th And –th: spare, overseas, but under stress -Ouch – spare, marine.
Please note: in Russian writing before the reform of 1917 there were many more words with traditional spelling.
The capitalization of proper names in Russian is also based on the traditional historical principle of spelling.
Morphological and symbolic principles strive to convey the language not through phonetics, while morphological spellings reflect morphology (grammar), and symbolic spellings strive to distinguish lexical homonyms that are phonetically indistinguishable.
Example morphological spellings in the Russian language is the use of a soft sign at the end of feminine words after hissing words ( night, mouse). The same rule applies to borrowed words: fake, mascara.
Example symbolic spellings: distinction in pre-reform Russian orthography of homonyms peace(antonym of war) and world(synonymous with the universe).
In modern Russian orthography, the combination of morphological and symbolic principles is manifested in such spellings as set fire(verb with e) And arson(noun with O), where both grammar and vocabulary differ.
Introduction………………………………………………………………2
Spelling……………………………………………………………………......3
Basic principles of Russian spelling……………………………………4
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………7
Used literature……………………………………………………………8
Introduction.
“Although the ideal is to mechanize the writing process, it is only up to a certain limit, beyond which the writing process must still be conscious. Attention must linger on certain forms of language, quickly analyze them and, accordingly, solve one or another spelling problem. It already follows from this that the mechanization of the writing process will in no way give absolute literacy, and even more, it will certainly lead to semi-literacy, since it will not create the habit of analyzing linguistic forms when writing.”
L. V. Shcherba
What is written language?
Written speech is speech depicted on paper, parchment, birch bark, stone, canvas using special graphic signs (writing signs) intended to depict speech sounds. Written speech is one of the forms of language existence, opposed to oral speech. Written speech is a secondary, later in time form of language existence than oral speech. In different periods of language history, there are different types of relationships between written and spoken language.
The use of a written form of speech allows the writer to think about his speech, build it gradually, correcting and supplementing, which ultimately contributes to the use and development of more complex syntactic structures than is typical for oral speech, the emergence of its other features and leads to a divergence between these two forms of speech. Written speech is necessary for many styles of literary language: scientific, official and business. Thus, statements, complaints and similar genres exist only in written form.
Fiction also exists in the form of written speech, although it can also be realized orally (for example, reading works of fiction by actors and readers, theatrical performances, any reading aloud). In contrast, oral folk art - folklore has an oral form of existence as its primary form of existence, while records of folklore are a secondary form of its implementation. For the Russian language, the first recording of written speech dates back to the 11th century.
The letter refers to greatest inventions humanity. Writing helps people communicate in cases where communication in audible language is either impossible or difficult. Writing is a sign system for recording speech, which allows, with the help of descriptive (graphic) elements, to transmit information at a distance and consolidate it in time.
Spelling.
If the alphabet were compiled according to the principle: “the number of letters corresponds to the number of phonemes of the language,” then the question of spelling would disappear by half. But since there are no ideal alphabets and they have evolved historically, reflecting different trends, the use of the alphabet in writing requires spelling rules. In addition to the rules for using letters to convey language, there are other rules of writing, such as, for example, the combined and separate spelling of words, the rules of hyphenation.
Thus, spelling is a set of norms or rules for practical writing. Basic spelling rules govern:
1) designation of sounds/phonemes in writing, use
alphabetic characters to designate them as part of morphemes, words, phrases;
2) the use of upper and lowercase letters in writing (cf., for example, the use of capital letters in Russian and many other languages when writing proper names, in German - all nouns);
3) continuous, semi-continuous (hyphenated) and separate spelling of words and their parts;
4) division of words when transferring their parts from one line to
A special area of orthography is the spelling of borrowed words, which is often characterized by specific features (cf., for example, special rules for designating the consonant [j] in Russian orthography for words like Yemen, foye, York, yogi, iod, major, district, battalion, postman). We can also talk about specific rules for graphic abbreviations of words or phrases in each language.
Sometimes the rules for using punctuation marks are also included among the rules of spelling. A spelling determined by spelling rules, selected from a number of possible ones, is called spelling (from the Greek orthos - ‘correct’ and grammaЇ - ‘written sign’). Examples of spelling patterns in Russian writing include: writing the letter a/o in unstressed syllables of words such as beard, head, dear; writing the letter z/s at the end of the prefixes; writing the ending of the genitive singular masculine _ogo; writing _tsya/_tsya in verb forms; designation of the suffix _н#/_нн# in passive past participles and participial adjectives_
body; the use of a lowercase or capital letter at the beginning of a word; continuous or semi-continuous spelling of a word; place of word division during transfer; character of the word abbreviation.
Among the rules of spelling, the central place is occupied by the rules regarding the designation of sounds/phonemes in writing - as part of morphemes or words/word forms. These rules are based on specific spelling principles. The most important of them are phonetic, phonemic and historical.
Basic principles of Russian spelling.
According to the phonetic principle of spelling, the letters of the alphabet “represent actually pronounced sounds,” i.e. “the letter indicates the sound that is actually pronounced.” This principle of spelling is expressed by the formula: “as it is heard, so is it written.” The phonetic principle takes place “when positional alternations of phonemes are specifically reflected in the letter, i.e., phonemes of weak positions are designated by letters on the basis of direct correspondence: a phoneme is a letter adequate to it.”
The phonetic principle of spelling is widely used in a particular alphabetic letter at the time of its origin, when the spelling of words reflects their pronunciation to the maximum extent. In the process of development in language
Various phonetic changes occur that spelling is unable to reflect, and the phonetic principle of spelling is gradually violated. This applies, in particular, to positional (i.e., phonetically determined) alternations of sounds (cf., for example, the spelling head, pasta when pronouncing [gъл_ва], [п_жд’ба]). In some modern writing systems (for example, in Belarusian, Serbian, German), the phonetic principle
spelling is leading. Most often, letters do not denote actually pronounced sounds, but phonemes, without taking into account their positional changes. Thus, in the first syllable of the word forms young, younger, young, the letter o denotes different vowel sounds representing the same phoneme
The essence of the phonemic principle of spelling is that: “the written word accurately reflects its phonemic composition”;
“the same letters of the alphabet designate a phoneme in all its variations”
“the same phonemes, represented by different alternating sounds, are denoted by the same letters”;
“phonemes in weak positions are denoted by the same letters as phonemes in strong positions.”
With the phonemic principle of spelling, the unity of the morpheme is emphasized: in different words/word forms, the same morpheme is indicated in writing in the same way, regardless of how it is actually pronounced in accordance with the rules of orthoepy existing in the language. Therefore, this principle is sometimes called morphemic or morphematic.
The phonemic (morphemic) principle of spelling is practically implemented in form formation (in morphology) and word formation (in word production). Therefore, it is often called morphological (R. I. Avanesov, O. S. Akhmanova, R. A. Budagov, A. N. Gvozdev, B. N. Golovin, V. F. Ivanova, V. I. Kodukhov, M. I. Matusevich, M. V. Panov, A. G. Shapiro, L. V. Shcherba). At the same time, the term “morphological principle of spelling” is sometimes used in other meanings.
The principle of spelling under consideration is also called etymological (L. R. Zinder, L. V. Shcherba), etymological_morphological (R. A. Budagov, Yu. S. Maslov, M. I. Matusevich), phonemic_morphological (V. A. Istrin) . Note that the term “etymological principle of spelling” is usually used as an absolute synonym for the term “historical principle of spelling”.
In different writing systems, the spelling of words is more or less common, reflecting not their current state, but the past, that is, the spelling of words in accordance with the established tradition, taking into account the peculiarities of their long-standing pronunciation and spelling. This principle of spelling, when “they write as their ancestors wrote,” is called historical.
This principle of spelling is often also called etymological (O. S. Akhmanova, Yu. S. Maslov, M. I. Matusevich), traditional (O. S. Akhmanova, R. A. Budagov, A. N. Gvozdev, B. N. Golovin, L. R. Zinder, Yu. S. Maslov, M. I. Matusevich), conservative (O. S. Akhmanova, L. R. Zinder, Yu. S. Maslov, M. I. Matusevich), historical_traditional (V. A. Istrin, V. I. Kodukhov), traditionally historical (O. S. Akhmanova, B. Z. Bukchina, L. P. Kalakutskaya).
The historical principle of spelling prevails in French, Spanish, but especially in English writing.
In modern Russian writing, the historical principle of spelling as such is absent; it is represented only by individual, although quite numerous, cases of spelling words.
In Russian orthography, this principle corresponds, for example, to the traditional designation of unstressed vowels with different letters in words in which they do not occur under stress (cf.: ram, heel, Slavs and dog, cow, milk, peas; seal, debut and rebellion, language ); designation by the letters a and o of the same phoneme as part of a root or prefix morpheme (cf.: age and sprout, touch and touch; reflection, reflection and search, dissolution); designation of some consonant phonemes in a weak position, not verified by a strong position (for example, the use of the letter b in the word general); the use of letters after hard hissing ones, which in the Old Russian language were soft consonants (cf.: life, live, width, wide, hiss); designation of the sound [o] by the letter е after hissing
(cf.: wives, bees, lies, went, millet); preservation of the letter g at the end of _ogo/_ego (cf.: big, young, blue, loving), etc.
We can say that the historical principle of spelling is the principle “the most “unprincipled”, blindly preserving any writing tradition.”
Along with the considered basic principles of spelling, many scientists (O. S. Akhmanova, V. A. Bogoroditsky, A. N. Gvozdev, L. R. Zinder, V. I. Kodukhov, Yu. S. Maslov, M. I. Matusevich , L.V. Shcherba, etc.) especially highlight the principle of differentiation of writings (or differential, differentiating, differentiating), also called ideographic (otherwise - hieroglyphic, symbolic). This principle of orthography “is based on the semantic difference of similar spellings”, usually “manifests itself in phonemic writing in the difference in the spellings of homonyms.”
Wed: ball and ball, campaign and company, burn and burn, arson and set fire, burn and burn, cry and cry, ink and ink, hope and Nadezhda, Lisitsyn and
Lisitsyn; Wed also in the old Russian orthography: mirъ (‘tranquility’) and mirъ (‘universe’), eat (‘there is’) eat (‘to eat’), etc.
Some linguists consider the principle of graphically uniform design of the spelling of words belonging to certain grammatical categories as a special principle of orthography. This principle of spelling is called morphological (L. R. Zinder, A. A. Reformatsky, D. E. Rosenthal, M. A. Telenkova), or morphological in the narrow sense (M. I. Matusevich), or symbolic-morphological, grammatical (Yu. S. Maslov), or the principle of morphological-graphic analogies (V. F. Ivanova).
As examples of the use of this principle of spelling in modern Russian writing, cases are given of the use of the letter ь after hissing to indicate the feminine gender of a noun (rye, mouse, night, thing), the infinitive of a verb (oven, preserve), the imperative form of a verb (eat , eat; cut, cut; cry, cry).
Some linguists refer to the morphological principle of spelling (in the narrow sense) as cases where similar spelling distinguishes different grammatical forms the same words: sit down and sit down, quarrel and quarrel, knock and knock.
Sometimes such principles of orthography are distinguished as verbal-semantic, lexical-syntactic, word-formative and grammatical.
Conclusion.
In any orthography one can observe one or another combination of different principles, but each orthographic system is determined by the leading principles; Thus, for the Russian spelling system, the leading principle is the phonemic one, on the basis of which the basic spelling rules are built, while for most Western European orthographies, the leading one is the traditional historical one (for example, for English or French spelling).
If the alphabet were compiled according to the principle: “the number of letters corresponds to the number of phonemes of the language,” then the question of spelling would disappear by half. But since there are no ideal alphabets and they have evolved historically, reflecting different trends, the use of the alphabet in writing requires spelling rules. In addition to the rules for using letters to convey language, there are other rules of writing, such as, for example, the combined and separate spelling of words, the rules of hyphenation.
Thus, orthography 1 is a set of norms or rules of practical writing, consisting of: 1) rules for using letters of the alphabet when writing words, their forms and combinations, 2) rules for writing words and phrases, regardless of included in their writing of letters.
1 Spelling – from Greek orthos – "correct" and grapho – "writing". Greek word ortliography corresponds to Russian tracing paper spelling.
The norms for such writing are governed by various principles.
For spelling, which is associated with the use of letters of the alphabet, six principles can be established, which are combined in pairs.
First principle – phonemic, second – phonetic.
The phonemic principle of writing is that each phoneme is expressed by the same letter, regardless of the position in which it falls: e.g. oak And oak are written the same, although pronounced differently: in the form oak -[b], i.e., a voiced consonant, and in the form oak at the end of the word this consonant is deafened. On the contrary, the phonetic principle of writing is that letters represent actually pronounced sounds; Thus, phonemic and phonetic spellings coincide in strong positions, but do not coincide in weak positions.
So, som And myself are written the same both phonemically and phonetically, but in the case I caught the catfish myself - in Russian the spelling is phonemic, since strong positions suggest the distinction between [o] and [a], and phonetically the same statement would receive the following spelling: caught it myself - and where is the “fish” and where is the “fisherwoman” - you can’t tell.
In Russian writing, exceptions to the phonemic principle may occur:
1) either by the composition of the alphabet: this means that there are twice as many vowel letters as there should be, and 12 fewer consonant letters than needed; in addition, there is no letter for the consonant [zh;];
2) either because there are special spelling rules; for example, in spellings of prefixes with [z]: unemployed, But non-stop, eyebrowless, But careless and finally tasteless, where the letter is used h , Although h sounds in this case like [s]. However, when these consonants sound like "sibilants", for example in words silent, merciless, inhuman, h And With remain according to the rule: “Before letters b, c, d, e, g, h, l, m, n, r is written h, and before the letters l, f, k, t, w, s, h, c, x is written With" In addition to this “rule” (which is rather an “exception” in Russian spelling), cases of phonetic spellings include writing the letter s after ts (gypsy, chicken, cucumbers, foxes, Lisitsyn), whereas it would be necessary to write in these cases after ts capital letter And , Wed surnames Lisitsian, Tsitsin, where the spelling is more phonemic.
The basic rules of Russian spelling are based on the phonemic principle: “Write unstressed vowels in the same way as under stress, for example: water, water carrier, because water; forester, because forest, And fox breeder, because foxes".“Write voiced and voiceless consonants always in any position, such as before vowels, sonorant consonants and before [v], [v"], for example: fetus, because fruit, And raft, because raft; give away because tear off But file, because undermine; cur, because mongrels, But Masha, because Masek; climb, because I'm climbing, But carry, because I carry; swim with"erem" ( b ), because bathe; that's why smoke, smoke And smokes, smokes are written differently."
Third and fourthprinciples of spelling – etymological and traditional-historical- are based on reflecting in writing not the current state, but the past, and the etymological principle actually corresponds to the language in its past; these are the spellings of words with a letter e : bees, women, went, millet, lying, since in these cases there was once a phoneme [e] in the Russian language, but for the modern Russian language here [o], i.e. “ O after a soft consonant or after a hissing one”: cf. seam, zhokh, sword, cloak, rattle, tap, rustle etc., where the phonemic principle of writing 1 is correctly applied. The traditional historical principle, the most “unprincipled”, blindly preserving any tradition of writing, is based on the same principle of transmitting the past. These are the Church Slavonic spellings in Russian writing: assistant with a letter sch, Although Russian word does not come from Church Slavonic help, but from Russian help, that etymologically it would be necessary to write through h (helper), and phonemically through w (assistant), writing unstressed endings of adjectives -th, -th (spare, overseas, although under stress -Ouch: spare, marine), writing an unstressed prefix once- With A, although under the accent [o], cf. meditation, But rest, flourish etc.
1 Trying to distinguish spellings: bees, taken into account, lye With e, A rustle, rustle With O, because h, sch – soft consonants and w, f – hard cannot be justified, because sibilant consonants in the Russian language do not form pairs of hardness and softness; therefore, after sibilants it is necessary to write basic letters, and not doublet ones, i.e. A , but not I, oh but not e, y , but not yu, and , but not s, and, strange as it may seem, one should write uh , but not e , Wed tea(but not why th), pike(but not pike), fat, sewed(but not fat, shit), But wool(but not wool).
In Russian spelling before the reform of 1917. there were many more such traditional spellings (her, instead of her, unstressed endings of adjectives -ago, -ago; the use of the letters fita and izhitsa, etc.).
Fifth and sixth principles can also be compared: this morphological principle and symbolic 1. What they have in common is that they strive to convey the language not through phonetics, while morphological spellings reflect grammar (morphology), bypassing phonetics and even conflicting with it, and symbolic writings strive to distinguish lexical homonyms that are phonetically indistinguishable.
An example of morphological spellings can be the use of a soft sign at the end of feminine words after hissing words (night, Where b useless, cf. Ray, or mouse, Where b written after the hard [sh], which is a clear contradiction); the fact that in such writings it is not a matter of etymology is shown by examples of foreign words to which this rule applies (false, mascara, Wed carcass masculine without b ).
A good example of symbolic writing was the distinction between two homonyms in pre-reform Russian orthography: peace(antonym war) And m iръ(synonym universe).
In modern Russian orthography, spellings such as set fire(verb with e ) And arson(noun with O ), show a combination of morphological and symbolic principles, because both grammar and vocabulary differ in them. Such writings as company And campaign, overpass And overpass, although the differences in spelling in these cases are based on foreign etymology. The symbolic principle includes the use of capital letters in proper names (cf. French And General French, frost And Father Frost); These examples show that the symbolic principle is associated with the manifestation of a unique ideography.
In any orthography one can observe one or another combination of different principles, but each orthographic system is determined by the leading principles; Thus, for the Russian spelling system the leading principle is the phonemic principle, on the basis of which the basic spelling rules are built, while for most Western European orthographies the leading principles are etymological and traditional-historical (for example, for English or French spelling) 1 .
1 About Russian spelling, see the book: Panov M.V. And yet it is good! M., 1964.
