Topic 2
I. General characteristics of the state category as a part of speech
II. Lexico-semantic categories of words of the state category
III. Morphological features of state category words. Their syntactic functions
In the first half of the 19th century. in the works of domestic linguists, a category of unchangeable words is consistently identified, which in form coincide with nouns, adjectives, adverbs, but have the meaning of state and are used as a predicate in an impersonal sentence (laziness, pity, possible, shameful, funny, fun, stuffy, etc.). Such words began to be called either a state category, or predicatives, or impersonally - predicative words. Their place and composition in the system of parts of speech was determined ambiguously.
In modern linguistics, two approaches to words of the state category predominate.
The first approach recognizes the category of state independently, but as a significant part of speech (L. V. Shcherba, V. V. Vinogradov, etc.); the second - denies that the category of state belongs to an independent part of speech and includes it with special rights in the composition of adverbs (A.B. Shapiro and others).
The grammatical meaning of words in the category of state is associated with the expression of state in its broadest sense (sad, painful, cold, etc.).
II. Lexico-semantic categories of words of the state category
According to their lexical semantics, words of the state category are divided into the following groups:
denoting the physical state of a person, animal (him chilly, dog hurt);
denoting the physical condition of a person (for a child funny, adult sad);
· denoting a modal assessment of the subject’s state (necessary, impossible, possible, laziness, lack of time);
· denoting an assessment of the state of nature and environment (windy, cold, dark, stuffy);
· denoting an assessment of the state of the environment in terms of temporal and spatial relationships, auditory and visual perception of objects (seen, heard).
III. Morphological features of state category words. Their syntactic functions
· lack of inflection forms;
· presence of analytical forms of time ( warm, it was warm; it will be warm).
· presence of analytical forms of mood (warm, it would be warm);
· the ability of some words to form degrees of comparison ( coldest was in the house);
· the possibility of a number of words having forms of subjective assessment ( a bit chilly, chilly);
· some linguists believe that some words of the state category can, in combination with auxiliary verbs, form forms of the form ( it became warm, it became warm).
· short neuter adjectives,
· adverbs on -O (quiet, pathetic, funny, simple, loud, hot, etc.),
· nouns (leisure, lack of time, sin, laziness, time, hunting, pity, etc.).
When moving into the state category, adjectives, adverbs and nouns lose their general grammatical meanings and acquire the function of the main member of an impersonal sentence. (The sky was purely(cr. adj.). Washed the dishes purely(adverb). In the house purely(state category).
Condition category
For example:
You need to leave;
It's cloudy outside;
The room is quiet
In school grammar, words of the state category are considered as a type of adverb. Indeed, impersonal predicative words are often homonymous with adverbs in -O(and corresponding short forms of adjectives).
Exercise:
Compare:
The dress was beautiful(adj.);
The student drew beautifully(adv.);
The room was beautiful(cat. condition).
However, L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov showed that these coincidences are purely external, that the category of state is a special part of speech. Adverbs have the partial meaning of a sign of an action or a sign of another sign; Impersonal predicative words have the meaning of state. In a sentence, an adverb is usually an adverb, and the word of the state category is the main member of the sentence. Impersonal predicative words have analytical tense forms formed using copula and copular verbs to be, become, do etc., including the zero form of the present tense of the verb be.
For example:
It's quiet here
1) words starting with -o (fun, quiet, warm, funny etc.), correlative with qualitative adverbs and short forms
adjectives;
2) words time, laziness, hunting, sin and others, which are correlative with nouns, but unlike them they denote
what they look for is not an object, but a state.
For example:
It's time for us to leave;
3) words necessary, possible, ashamed, ashamed, afraid, impossible,
it's a pity, which do not find correspondence in other parts of speech
modern Russian language.
Lexico-grammatical categories of words
(sad, happy, scary), (hungry, sick, sick) (cozier, more/less dark) and superlativa (worst of all).
decomposition hunting and etc.).
Exercise:
Parse morphologically the words of the state category according to these schemes for parsing the part of speech “state category” (see Appendix 6 “Procedure for parsing independent and auxiliary parts of speech”) from the following sentences:
Yesterday it was cold, but tomorrow it will be warm;
It's quiet here
1.2.7.3Control questions to secure the material
2. What lexical and grammatical categories of words of the state category do you know?
Dictionary on the topic
Condition category(impersonal predicative words) are a part of speech that expresses the general categorical meaning of the state of living beings, nature, the environment in the grammatical form of the main component of impersonal constructions - its predicate.
Qualitative impersonal predicative words denote the state of living beings and the environment: the emotional and mental state of a person (sad, happy, scary), physical or physiological condition of a person (hungry, sick, sick) physical and meteorological state of the environment (dry, light, cloudy, cozy, deserted) etc. From qualitative impersonal predicative words it is possible to form forms of degrees of comparison - comparative (cozier, more/less dark) and superlativa (worst of all).
Modal impersonal predicative words express a modal assessment of the subject’s state, i.e. they have the meaning of desire, readiness, necessity, ability to perform this or that action (it is necessary, it is necessary, it is possible, it is necessary, it is impossible, laziness, decomposition hunting and etc.).
Unchangeable parts of speech
In the modern Russian language, along with the previously discussed seven changeable independent parts of speech, which have a more or less developed inflectional paradigm (including adverbs and words of the state category, many of which change according to degrees of comparison), there are also five unchangeable parts of speech, with zero morphological paradigm. These are modal words, prepositions, conjunctions, particles and interjections.
For scientific schools that set themselves the task of describing exclusively the inflectional characteristics of a word within the framework of morphology (this was the “formal” school of F.F. Fortunatov in Russia), all unchangeable words were not of special interest; they were often combined within one part of speech. However, if we do not reduce the grammatical properties of a word to its inflection (against the identification of concepts grammatical form words and inflections vigorously objected to L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov), all of the listed classes of unchangeable words exhibit significant grammatical differences, forming different parts of speech.
Unchangeable parts of speech belong to different (from those identified by V.V. Vinogradov) structural-semantic types of words. Modal words and interjections themselves constitute special structural-semantic types of words. Prepositions, conjunctions and particles form a structural-semantic type of auxiliary parts of speech.
Functional parts of speech
Topic plan
1. Preposition.
3. Particles.
Functional parts of speech call the relationships that exist between the phenomena of reality. They do not have a subject lexical meaning and are not members of a sentence; have grammatical meanings. Functional parts of speech include particles, prepositions and conjunctions. The opposition between independent and auxiliary parts of speech forms the basis of the category partiality.
TO service parts of speech relate:
- prepositions,
- particles,
- unions,
- ligaments ( they are used to connect a nominal predicate with a subject (He was my friend. The grove became denser and shady.)
Pretext
Pretext- This service part speech, used as a means of syntactic subordination of nouns (as well as pronouns) with other words in a sentence and phrase (house by the road, cross the street, first in class).
Expressing relationships, prepositions in their grammatical meaning are comparable to case endings, therefore they act together with them in a single functional complex, forming a prepositional-case construction that is integral in meaning. It is no coincidence that the prepositional case form often expresses the same grammatical meaning as the prepositional case construction. Wed: tell a friend- contact a friend(a type of object value addressee); go through the forest- walk through the forest(spatial meaning).
In my own way structure prepositions are divided into:
1) non-derivatives , or antiderivatives (in, without, to, on, with and etc.);
2) derivatives , or non-primitive, i.e. formed from other parts of speech (toward, through, despite etc.) or by adding two primitive prepositions (due to, over) and etc.).
By meaning many prepositions (especially spatial ones) are correlated with corresponding prefixes; compare: enter the forest, drive down the mountain, crawl under the sofa; voiceless - without a voice; sing and dance at the same time- dance.
Like other words, many prepositions are ambiguous. Pretext above, for example, has spatial significance (fly over the river) and object (think about the question). Derivative prepositions are usually unambiguous (thanks to- only causal meaning).
Union
Union- this is a service part of speech, which is used as a means of expressing the syntactic connection between members of a sentence, parts complex sentence, text components.
By structure unions differ:
- derivatives, or primitives (A, yes, and, or, but);
- derivatives, or non-derivatives (but, why, because, and and etc.).
Many of the non-primitive prepositions are compounds, the parts of which are separated from each other by parts of the sentence.
For example:
In addition, Mikhail Semyonovich drove both military and civilian vehicles...(Bulg.)
Some of the compound conjunctions are repeating - they repeat the same primitive or non-primitive conjunction component (and...and, neither...nor, then...that, either...either); other compound conjunctions are a combination of different conjunction components (as...so and, if...then, not only...but also).
By meaning and grammatical functions unions are divided into coordinating and subordinating .
Coordinating Conjunctions form a grammatical class of function words used to express coordinating (homogeneous) relationships between parts of a sentence. Depending on the nature of the meaning, there are several groups coordinating conjunctions, the main ones of which are:
1) connecting : and, yes(in meaning And), as well as repeated connecting conjunctions (and...and, neither...nor, both...so and);
2) adversative
: but yes(meaning "but"), however, a,
but;
3) dividing
: or, either, then...that, not that...not that, then
either...or;
4) connecting : and, yes and, also and etc.;
5) explanatory : namely, that is;
6) gradational : not only...but also, not that...a/but, not so much...as much.
Subordinating conjunctions is a grammatical class of function words used to express a subordinating relationship between parts of a complex sentence or (less often) between parts of a simple sentence.
For example:
Don't worry you told the truth(Gonch.);
Amber- what's the sand like in the river?(P.)
By meaning Subordinating conjunctions are distributed into the following groups:
1) temporary : when, while;
2) causal: because, because, since,
book for;
3) consequences : So;
4) conditional : if, if, outdated if, decomposition once, if only;
5) concessional: although, despite the fact that;
6) target: so that, in order to, in order to;
7) comparative : than, as, as if, exactly, as if;
8) explanatory: what to(meaning that).
Particles
Particles usually called the auxiliary part of speech, conveying shades of lexical and syntactic meanings, clarifying and specifying the meaning of lexical and syntactic units.
By meaning and role in a sentence particles are divided into ranks :
- formative;
- negative;
- modal,
- word-forming;
- syntactic.
Shaping particles (let it be, let it be, let it be) are particles that serve to form the conditional and behavioral mood of the verb.
For example:
would come
I would put it on
long live,
let's go,
let him go
write
Negative particles are particles Not And neither. Particle Not can give a sentence or individual words not only negative, but also positive meanings in case of double negative.
Two grammatical classes of particles are contrasted: particles modal and amodal (i.e. non-modal).
Modal particles introduce into the sentence the meanings of reality/irreality, reliability/unreliability, interrogative/affirmative, etc. Particles of this class include:
1) modal-volitional
: if only, well, give me [Bread!; Well
How not to please your loved one!..(Gr.); Let me tell you!;
Go ahead!; Go quickly];
2)
persuasive
(with the value of reliability/unreliability): decomposed. tea, yeah, supposedly, hardly, hardly, decomposition I guess And
etc. [He tea will arrive soon; They will do everything that is supposed to be done to her; They supposedly know nothing about it];
4) interrogative
: really, really, really, and I'm sorry, what,
They have already left?);
5) negative : don't kick;
6) emotional-evaluative
: too (Also a student!), here
also, so (and), where, where, what, here, and yes, like that and etc.
Amodal particles are also divided into several functional-semantic groups:
1) index fingers : there, there;
2) excretory-restrictive
: at least, only, only,
only (only), solely, exclusively;
3) definitive and clarifying
: almost, almost, just
exactly, exactly, almost, exactly, directly, exactly, truly,
precisely;
4) intensifying-emphasizing : Well, well, after all, even. (What should we do?; He knows what he’s saying).
They are not particles, i.e. function words, the following affixes (included in words):
a) return postfix -sya/-s in verb forms (studied, laughed);
b) pronominal word-forming affixes - prefix some and postfixes -that, -either, -something (someone, somewhere, some).
Some independent parts of speech can act instead of particles in a sentence. Inflectable words synonymous with particles should also not be called particles, namely: pronominal adjective most in a definitive and clarifying meaning (cf.: on the very holiday- just in time for the holiday; straight into the heart- right in the heart) numeral with adjective features one in an exclusive-restrictive meaning (cf.: Only bears live here- only bears).
Word-forming particles(something, -either, -something)– serve to form indefinite pronouns
Syntactic particles(even, even, after all, only, only, precisely, just, here, this, whether, really, etc.) - give different shades of meaning to a sentence.
Test questions to reinforce the material
1. Name the functional parts of speech.
2. Talk about a preposition. Give examples.
3. Tell us about the union. Give examples.
4. Tell us about particles. Give examples.
More recently, paragraphs dedicated to state category words have appeared in school textbooks. Before this, they were not studied at school. Let's look at what part of speech this is.
History of the study
Back in the 19th century, philologists A. Kh. Vostokov and A. A. Shakhmatov expressed the opinion that words like “cold”, “stuffy”, “shameful” are different from adverbs, since they have the category of time and person (more precisely, impersonality ). Researchers have compared these words with verbs, especially since they are also predicates in sentences.
However, not all linguists recognize state category words as part of speech. Let’s say that in “Russian Grammar” of 1980 such words are called “predicative adverbs”.
Grammatical features of words of the state category
State category words are unchangeable parts of speech that can express the state of nature or the environment (hot, stuffy, dusty) and man (hurt, shame); can also express evaluation (possible, necessary, impossible, good, etc.)
These parts of speech can only act as a compound nominal predicate. The grammatical design of tense (present, past or future) and mood (only indicative or conditional) is taken over by the linking verb “to be”, etc.).
In the present tense the copula is zero (It’s cold outside. But: It was (will be) cold outside)
Examples of state category words
These parts of speech are very similar to adverbs. They can be formed from adverbs by means of a transition from one part of speech to another.
Let's give examples of such words.
On the holiday it was fun.
Today and tomorrow it will be warm.
Fine in the forest in September!
Finally, there are also words that are difficult to associate with any generating word.
It was impossible and dream of such luck!
What have we learned?
State category words denote the state of the environment or person; may also mean an assessment of the condition. They do not change, but have categories of tense and mood, which are realized using a linking verb. These words occur only in the predicate position in an impersonal sentence. Not all scientists recognize the category of state as a special part of speech, although they were described by such outstanding linguists as Vinogradov and Shcherba.
Test on the topic
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GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WORDS CATEGORIES OF CONDITION
The category of state is a class of significant unchangeable words denoting a state (in the broad sense of the word) and in a sentence performing the function of the main member of impersonal sentences. For example: It’s so good, free, light on the Volga(M.G.); It was damp and stuffy in the jungle(From the gas.)
All words of this part of speech can be divided into groups according to their meaning:
1. Words denoting the state of the environment (warm, cold, damp, hot, noisy, windy and etc.). For example: The school building was quiet and deserted(Fad.).
2. Words denoting the physical state of living beings (painful, chilly and etc.). For example: She's stuffy, hot, and jumping up, she's trembling(L.).
3. Words denoting human mental states (creepy, embarrassing, scary and etc.). For example: But the soul is vast and wonderful, and crowds of silver visions arise in its depths.(G.).
4. Words denoting an assessment of a state (from the volume, size, time, moral and aesthetic side, etc.: beautiful, far, late and etc.). For example: I am far from home, and my path ahead is difficult(Pinch.); It's a sin to laugh at old age(Gr.); But we'll see you soon, and now it's time for us to go to sea(P.).
5. Words with modal meaning (it is necessary, it is necessary, it is possible, it is impossible, it is possible, it is impossible and etc.). For example: We must first remake life, Having remade it, we can chant(Lighthouse.).
GRAMMATICAL FEATURES OF WORDS OF STATE CATEGORIES
Words of the state category do not change, and only words ending in -o, correlative with adjectives and natural adverbs, can form the form of the comparative degree in a synthetic or analytical way (it became quieter, warmer, more dangerous). The meaning of the superlative degree is expressed only descriptively, by combining the forms of the comparative degree of these words with the words everyone, everything. For example: U he has more fun than everyone else; It was coldest in the open field.
Some words in this group have evaluation forms (cold-new, eerie, scary etc.). For example: The room became a little cold.
As mentioned above, in a sentence the words of state categories are the main members of one-component impersonal constructions. You can also indicate some features of the combination of these words with other words in coherent speech. Thus, words of the state category are combined with linking verbs of an abstract or semi-abstract nature (be, become, become, do etc.), and the copula can have forms of all times (was, will be, currently - zero) indicative mood and the subjunctive form (it would be colder).
With words of the state category there can be a noun, a pronoun in the form of the D. case with the meaning of a logical subject (I'm cold), R. or P. case (It's boring without you; It's dark in the forest), there may be adverbs of place, time, quantity, measure (It’s dark here; It became cold at night; It became very quiet). Words of the state category may be accompanied by an infinitive. For example: You need to study a lot, seriously, honestly(M.G.).
SERVICE PARTS OF SPEECH
Functional parts of speech include prepositions, conjunctions and particles s. They differ from the significant parts of speech primarily in that they do not perform a nominative function, that is, they do not name anything. This is the first feature. Their main role is to express relationships between words or sentences, convey various grammatical meanings or clarify them: Frost and sun!(P.) - union And shows that the words frost, sun are in an equal relationship; You would do the same- particle would together with the form of the verb, it conveys the subjunctive mood.
The second feature of function words is that they cannot be used independently and cannot be members of a sentence.
Finally, it should be noted that function parts of speech are usually unstressed. They form one phonetic word together with the word whose meaning is clarified if these are particles or prepositions. If they connect two independent syntactic units (meaning conjunctions), then they (conjunctions) always adjoin (in terms of stress) the subsequent word.
Stress is retained only by those auxiliary parts of speech that were formed relatively recently from significant parts of speech: thanks, although, despite, because and etc.
In their function, auxiliary parts of speech are close to morphemes.
Prepositions
Preposition as part of speech. Prepositions are an auxiliary part of speech that has an abstract lexical meaning and serves to connect a noun with other words in a phrase or sentence, for example: enter the house, the entrance to the museum, not far from the house, my friend and I. Instead of a noun, pronominal nouns can act as a subordinate word (farthest from me), Cardinal numbers (add to two), substantivized parts of speech (Love now, love always!(Ascended).
Various relationships can be conveyed using prepositions.
Object relations stand out most clearly (think about a friend, miss your daughter) And different kinds circumstantial relations:
Temporary (at five o'clock, on Wednesday, in a week, for two days, by Monday, between two and three o'clock);
Spatial (live in a village, be in your homeland, go to your father, leave the factory, go behind a house, walk down the street, cross a bridge);
Causal (not to come due to illness, to meet due to chance, to turn white with fear);
Target (do it for show, do it for glory, prepare for the parade);
Concessive (despite weather conditions, contrary to predictions);
Definitive (motorcycle with a sidecar, striped dress, the size of a watermelon);
Compatibility (talk to brother, go with a friend) and etc.
Most prepositions are used with a strictly defined case form and cannot be used with others, for example: preposition To only with D. case; to, from, for, at, for- with R.; at- with P. and others. Some prepositions are used with two cases: behind- with V. and T. (behind the house, behind the house, behind the school, behind the school); on, in- with V. and P. (on yard, in the yard, to school, at school).
Rarely does a preposition govern three cases: With- can be used with R., T. and V. cases (take from the table, take with you, the size of an apple); By- with D.; V. and P. cases (walk through the Forest, go mushroom hunting, come in the spring).
Methodological note. Since the preposition is an important means in determining cases, the teacher must clearly know and show this to 4th grade students how a case can be determined using a preposition.
To do this, you need to remember especially well those prepositions that are used only with one or predominantly with one case. For example, only with the R. case are prepositions used without, for, before. from. because of, from under, among, from, at, about, near, near, as well as prepositions during, in continuation. The preposition с cannot be a delimiter of the R. case, since it (the preposition) is also used with the V. and T. cases.
The preposition is used only with the D. case To; we can talk about a preposition By, which is also mainly used with the D. case. Cases of its use with a noun in the P. case (For whom the Bell Tolls?) extremely rare and not typical for the language of primary schoolchildren.
Prepositions are used only with the V. case about And through. Prepositions V. on, for, with(co), o(about) are used not only with V., but also with other cases. Therefore, it is impossible to determine the case of a noun using these prepositions alone.
The instrumental case does not have a preposition characteristic only of this case. All prepositions used with other cases: with, for, under, between, are also used with the T. case.
The indicator of the P. case is the preposition at.
The preposition is closely connected not only with the dependent word in the word combination, but also with the main word: often, with the help of a preposition, the shades of the meaning of the main word are distinguished, for example: consist of (a substance made up of small particles) And be a member of (be a member of the club).
The main word can determine the meaning of a preposition: come to the library And turn into a library. In the first case, the prelog together with the case form has the meaning of place, in the second - an object meaning. Regardless of the semantic relationships expressed, some words require a certain preposition due to their combinability properties (preface to miss depending on...). However, the Russian language is also characterized by the dependence of the preposition on the formal indicators of the main word, in particular on the verbal prefix: drive into a yard, run over a stone, drive over a fence, drive away from the station, drive off the road etc. Wed, however: cross the road, drive onto the sidewalk and so on.
Russian prepositions usually come before a noun (or before an adjective, if the noun has an agreed definition). Very rarely prepositions can be in postposition, for example: contrary to reason, for what reason.
Structure of prepositions. Depending on the structure, all prepositions are divided into primitives (non-derivative) and derivatives (non-primitive).
The group of primitives includes the most ancient prepositions, which, from the point of view of modern language, cannot be associated in origin with any part of speech. The number of such prepositions is small: without (without), in (in), before, for, for, from (iso), to (to), on, over (necessary), about, about (both), from (from), on, under (under ), before (predo), before (before), at, about, with (with), at, through (through).
Prepositions because of, from under, over, over formed by adding two simple prepositions and are called double or compound.
Derivative prepositions have motivated relationships with nouns, adverbs and gerunds.
Based on the nature of their correlation, they can be divided into several groups:
Named: during, in continuation, as, in the course of, for the purposes of and etc.;
Adverbial: near, along, towards, opposite, near; verbal: thanks, including, after.
In a number of cases in modern language These words act both as a preposition and as significant words: I looked around - everything was white and white. - A crowd gathered around me; He left thanking us for the night. “Thanks to his discipline, he managed to finish his dissertation ahead of schedule.
Methodological note. To distinguish the significant part of speech from a preposition, you need to select synonyms for them: We were warned the day before(= just now, recently - adverb). — We were warned on the eve of the exam(= before the exam - preposition); During the war I worked at a factory(= to war - pretext). — IN Lately the plant has achieved success(= in the last period - noun). — He returned a week later(= through - preposition).
Based on their morphological composition, derived prepositions are divided into simple ones, consisting of one word, for example: around, about, thanks to, as a result of, and compounds, consisting of the case form of a noun preceded by a primitive preposition: during, in continuation, except for, in the course of, along the way, during. Recently, complex prepositions have begun to develop more and more actively, representing the combination of the case form of a noun with the preceding and subsequent simple primitive prepositions: in connection with, depending on, on the way to, towards, compare: We went towards the forest. - We went towards the forest.
Complex prepositions are typical for official business, scientific and journalistic styles, although recently they have begun to penetrate into colloquial speech, creating undesirable shades of clericalism: in the matter of spreading the Russian language etc. Primary prepositions mostly have a neutral stylistic connotation. Only some of them have a touch of sublimity: among, through, before, before. Some primitive prepositions have a connotation of colloquialism: A film about love, let's go pick some berries for the sake of the children.
Methodological note. Students primary classes become familiar with primitive prepositions already during the period of learning to read and write. By calling prepositions “small words,” the teacher draws the children’s attention to the fact that these words are written separately from other words. This skill is developed through practical means in 2nd grade (according to the 1-4 system). In the 3rd grade, when studying prefixes, the teacher compares prepositions and prefixes, again drawing the children's attention to the fact that prepositions are written separately and never come before verbs. Then, when learning a noun, children learn with which cases prepositions are used. Particular attention is paid to developing this skill in the 4th grade, when the spelling of case endings of nouns is studied and it is required to determine the case of a noun based on a number of features, including prepositions.
In addition, the correct use of prepositions is an integral part of the culture of speech. Therefore, the teacher must carefully monitor the correct use of prepositional case constructions. Already in the first grades, you should pay attention to the use of prepositions from and with in constructions like from Moscow, from Ukraine, from the post office, from the hospital, from school etc. In addition, the teacher needs to get students to correctly use prepositions with a noun with a verb miss. You should say: miss your mom, miss your brother, but not *miss(!) mom.
Unions
Conjunctions are an auxiliary part of speech that serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of a complex sentence, or to connect individual sentences in a text.
A messenger rides with a letter and finally arrives(P.); The door creaked quietly, and the king entered the room, the sovereign of that side(P.); Our shelter is small, but calm(L.); Before our melancholy sang songs, but now our joy sings(L.-Kum.).
Based on their origin and word-formation structure, conjunctions are divided into primitive and derivative. Antiderivatives arose a long time ago, and their meaning in modern language is not motivated. These are unions such as: a, but, yes, or, nor, but, yes mitd.
Derivative unions appeared later. Most of them were formed from pronouns, adverbs or from prepositional-pronominal, adverbial and other combinations: before; Although; contrary to; thanks to; until; due to the fact that; to; Where; What; How etc. In modern language, the process of forming conjunctions continues. New conjunctions are formed by adding specific words to existing conjunctions, for example: and therefore, and therefore, and then, and thereby, and therefore, and moreover, due to the fact that and etc.
According to their morphological composition, conjunctions are divided into simple ones, consisting of one word, and compound ones, which are a combination of two or more verbal elements. Examples of simple conjunctions: a, but, and, for, so that, although etc. Compound conjunctions: since, because, while etc. Among the compound unions, a group of double unions stands out: not only... but also, because... to the extent, than... the etc. The components of compound conjunctions can follow each other without allowing any inclusion between them, and can be dismembered in other words, as in double conjunctions not only... but also, not so much... as.
In compound conjunctions, the pronominal element can be highlighted by logical stress. In this case, a pause separates the conjunction, which is indicated in writing by a comma, which is placed after the pronominal part: thanks to; because of; due to the fact that; due to the fact that etc. Compare: Apparently, this thought repeatedly occupied the captain, because he repeatedly returned to it in the margins of other books(Kav.); I loved my trips because I was alone(Paust.).
It is necessary to distinguish from double conjunctions repeating conjunctions, which make up the second group, for example: then... that, not that... not that, or... or, and... and, neither... nor etc.
According to the nature of the syntactic relations that establish unions between connected components, unions are divided into coordinating and subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions combine components on the basis of their equality, without indicating the dependence of one on the other. They combine or homogeneous members sentences, or parts of a complex sentence.
Subordinating conjunctions combine unequal components and indicate the dependence of one of them on the other. Subordinating conjunctions are typical for complex sentences, where the component they add (subjective clause) depends on the main part and explains it. In rare cases, subordinating conjunctions occur in a simple sentence. This is a union Although, which can attach homogeneous members: The weather is warm, although windy, and comparative conjunctions introducing comparative phrases, or standing before the predicate: The day is warmer than the night; The forest stands like in a fairy tale. Union How can be used in a simple sentence to mean “as” when it is attached, for example: Conversation as a means of educating younger schoolchildren is widely used by teachers.
Grammatical meanings and relationships in each of these groups depend on the quality of the specific conjunction and the content of the connected components. So, connecting conjunctions and, yes, neither... nor can express connecting relations, i.e. those in which two or more homogeneous components are combined: It's late in the evening, in winter, and there's a bitter frost(N.); The naughty Monkey, the Donkey, the Goat and the club-footed Bear...(Kr) Such conjunctions are called coordinating connectives.
Separating relations are expressed using coordinating disjunctive conjunctions or... or, either... or, not that... not that, that... that, either... or. These unions show that the components they connect either alternate or are mutually exclusive: What is driving you? Is it deprivation of fate, or secret envy? Is it open anger?(L.) Coordinating adversative conjunctions ah, but, yes(in meaning But) show that the parts being connected are contrasted or compared: Soon the fairy tale will tell, but not soon the deed will be done(Ate.).
Graduation unions not only... but also, not so much... as, not really... ah, connecting the components, the last one is highlighted, indicating its special importance. For example: It is necessary to take into account not only the number of errors, but also their nature.
Subordinating conjunctions also express various dependency relationships:
Temporary: when, as soon as, until, since, until and etc.;
Causal: since, because, for and etc.;
Conditional: if, if, once;
Target: so that, in order to, if only;
Concessive: although, despite the fact that;
Consequences: as a result of which, so;
Comparative: as, as if, as if, exactly, as if, just like and etc.;
Explanatory: what how and etc.
Some conjunctions can combine the meanings of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, for example: Although the eye can see, the tooth is numb. Here is the union at least... yes has an adversarial concessive meaning. Conjunctions, like other words, can have multiple meanings, for example union When can express temporary relationships and conditional ones. Wed: When Boris doesn't stop being cunning, let's skillfully excite people(P.) - union When used in a conditional meaning; When the roll call passed through the trenches, When we were having a conversation over tea, A tufted, gray bird fluttered Above the edge of a no man's, wild land(Marmot.) - union When time matters.
Like words of other parts of speech, conjunctions have a stylistic connotation. Many conjunctions are stylistically neutral, for example: if, when, what, how, or, and, but. Some conjunctions are characteristic only of oral speech, including literary colloquial speech: since soon, since, once, good. Many compound conjunctions belong to book speech, and equally to all its varieties: due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, despite the fact that and etc.
Methodological note. IN primary school No special topic“Conjunctions”, but almost already in the very initial period of education, children become familiar with conjunctions a, and, but. Like prepositions, they are called "little words." It is important already during this period to draw the attention of children to the fact that conjunctions are written separately from other words and before ah, but there is always a comma. In 2nd grade, during Russian language lessons, especially when doing creative work, children widely use complex sentences with conjunctions when, if, because, what.
Here you can propaedeutic tell students that these words should be preceded by a comma. A more detailed introduction to coordinating conjunctions is carried out in the 4th grade (according to the 1-4 system) when studying homogeneous members of a sentence. Students are informed that homogeneous members of a sentence can be connected by words a, and, but, or. Here it is important to draw children’s attention to the difference in intonation before these conjunctions (purely practically) and reinforce the skill of placing a comma before conjunctions a, but. You can draw children's attention to the fact that before a single union And There is no comma, but when repeated it is required.
Particles
Particles are a part of speech that includes unchangeable non-nominal words that serve to express the semantic, emotional and modal-volitional shades of words, phrases and sentences. Wed: I did the work.—I almost did the work; He started working. - He just started working. In these sentences, particles show the degree of completion of the action, i.e. they clarify the meaning of the verbs done, started. Wed. more: I'll come tomorrow. - I'm unlikely to come tomorrow. Particle hardly shows that the validity of the action is questioned. Wed. more: Aren't you coming with us? And Won't you come with us?
Here the particles (highlighted), forming, together with intonation, the interrogative modality of the sentence, at the same time express doubt, surprise, and distrust of the speaker. With the help of particles can be transmitted different meanings: statement (yes, that's right) negation (no, no, no) doubt (really, really) uncertainty (hardly, hardly) allocation (precisely, directly) limitation (only, only, only) and other meanings.
According to their meaning and function, all particles are divided into the following categories:
1. Particles expressing semantic shades of words. These include: a) defining particles: barely (barely spoke), exactly, exactly, almost (almost red), almost (almost fell) etc.; b) particles that serve to distinguish an object, attribute, action from a number of others or enhance the meaning of the object, attribute, action. These particles are called excretory-restrictive. These include particles: only, even, still, at least, at least, only, only, only. For example: I don’t even want to wish you goodnight(G.). Here's a particle And, synonymous even, strengthens the object of action. Wed. more: That's what he said; He said exactly that; He just said it, not wrote it. In these sentences the particle exactly highlights the word it precedes.
2. Emotionally expressive particles. These particles express the emotional-expressive attitude of the speaker to what is being expressed: What a delight these tales are!(P.); It’s so clear, in order to start living in the present, we must first atone for our past, put an end to it...(Ch.); How good you are, O night sea!(Tutch.) These include particles: after all, well, that’s it, it would be, just, like that, where as and etc.
3. Modal and modal-volitional particles. This group of particles expresses the relationship of what is being said to reality, i.e. they convey an affirmation or negation, a question or motivation, show the reliability of what is being said, comparison, etc.: Is it really the same Tatyana?(P.); Can you really tell me about this? What years did you live in?(Isak); Aren't you ashamed of the walls?(Kr.) Modal-volitional particles include particles: yes, no, really, hardly, hardly, let, let, perhaps, really, as if, perhaps etc. This also includes particles denoting the subjective transmission of someone else’s speech: they say.
4. Special group particles constitute form-forming particles. They serve to form forms of verb moods, to form forms of degrees of comparison, for example: the most interesting, more beautiful, he would say, let him say. These particles are close in meaning and function to formative affixes. As for word-forming particles -th, -either, -yet, -ka, somehow-, identified by some researchers in the category of particles, then they (particles) should be considered as a special type of word-forming affixes.
The proposed classification of particles cannot cover all their meanings, since the meanings of some particles are specified in the sentence. In addition, many particles have close connections with words from other parts of speech. They contain elements of the meanings of adverbs to varying degrees (literally, completely, directly), pronouns (everything, everything, it, this), verbs (it was, look) unions (and, fortunately, even, even, let, even, so that), prepositions (like). Often there is a combination of the meanings of a particle and a conjunction, a particle and an adverb. In this case, they must be qualified in two ways: conjunction - particle, particle - adverb, etc. (For more information about this, see the section “Homonymous Parts of Speech.”)
All particles, except formative ones, are characteristic of colloquial speech and are widely found in fiction. They are not characteristic of official business and scientific styles of speech.
Methodological note. In the elementary grades, attention to modal-volitional particles helps the teacher show the specifics of interrogative and exclamatory sentences and give certain recommendations to students for expressive reading.
Modal words
General characteristics of modal words. Modality is a conceptual and grammatical category that expresses the speaker’s attitude to the utterance, the attitude of the utterance to objective reality.
Modality is expressed by various means: lexical, morphological and syntactic. For example, different significant words can have a modal meaning (want, be able, assume, assert, true, false etc.). These are lexical means of expressing modality.
The meanings of modality are expressed by forms of verb moods, i.e. morphologically.
Different modal meanings are inherent various types sentences: narrative, incentive (functional modality), interrogative, affirmative and negative, i.e. this is a syntactic expression of modality.
There is another type of modality - subjective modality, which is expressed in special modal words. Modal words are a class of unchangeable words with the help of which the speaker’s subjective attitude to the statement or part of it is expressed in terms of its reliability / unreliability. For example: You may have heard - we are leaving(I.T.) - combination May be conveys the meaning of conjecture; “Decidedly - he’s lovely,” she said, either thoughtfully or absent-mindedly(I.T.) - word decisively expresses the meaning of confidence in what is being communicated in the sentence.
Modal words in a sentence are not grammatically related to its other members and are not members of the sentence. Most often, they act as introductory words, standing out in the text with intonation (in writing - with punctuation marks). For example: Your library has certainly grown since then?(Sol.) In addition, modal words can act as sentence words in the response dialogue. For example: “No, are you serious?” - she asked, gradually realizing the incongruity of the unexpected event. - "Certainly"(Ant.).
Modal words are formed from significant words and often have homonyms among them. For example: Troekurov ordered to immediately catch up with him and turn him back without fail.(P.). In this sentence the word certainly is an adverb, refers to a predicate verb and is not distinguished by either intonation or commas. Of course, he will return. In this sentence the word certainly- modal, meaning the speaker’s confidence. Or: He copied the drawing exactly. “He’s definitely copying the drawing.”
Classification of modal words by meaning. According to the meaning that modal words give to a statement or its individual parts, they are divided into several groups. The main ones are the following.
1. Modal words expressing confidence, reliability (of course, undoubtedly, naturally, definitely, certainly, truly, really and etc.); combinations (in fact, it goes without saying, it goes without saying and etc.). For example: In fact: take it and leave it!(Kav.)
2. Modal words expressing the meaning of conjecture, uncertainty (seems, probably, apparently, hardly, maybe and etc.); combinations (in all likelihood, in all likelihood and etc.). For example: Maybe you were right(I.T.); Apparently the moment has come(Kav.).
Interjections
Interjection as a part of speech. Interjections are a class of unchangeable words that serve to express various feelings and volitional impulses of a person (oh, ah! well! and etc.).
In the system of parts of speech, interjections occupy special place. Interjections differ from function words in that they do not connect members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence, like conjunctions; do not express the relationships of nouns and pronouns to other words in a sentence, like prepositions; do not attach semantic, modal and expressive meanings to words or sentences, like particles.
Interjections differ from significant parts of speech in that, while expressing feelings and motives, they do not name them. For example: Oh, quickly my youth flashed like a falling star(P.). In this sentence the interjection Oh expresses a feeling of regret, but does not name it, unlike words I'm sorry, I'm sorry and etc. Or: Oh my God, perch! Ah, ah... hurry up!(Ch.) In this sentence the interjection combination My God and interjection Oh express a feeling of delight. Many interjections can serve to express different feelings.
So, for example, in the works of A. S. Pushkin, the interjection Oh used to express feelings of surprise, guesswork, joy, distrust, etc.: Ah!.., wait; what a wonderful thought...(expresses a feeling of joy); Oh, mother is coming...(expresses a feeling of fear); Oh, he's a lieutenant! ah, villain!(expresses a feeling of indignation). Interjection A also expresses various feelings. For example: A! So you are obedient to my will!(the interjection expresses a feeling of displeasure); "A! Pyotr Andreich! - he said when he saw me...(expresses a feeling of joyful surprise).
Some interjections, despite the fact that they do not have a nominative function, nevertheless have a content assigned to them. For example, interjection Alas serves to express feelings of grief, regret; interjection guard expresses a call for assistance, etc.
In a sentence, interjections are not syntactically related to its members. They can act as an independent interjection sentence. For example: “Fathers! - the thin one was amazed. - Misha! Childhood friend!(Ch.) Some interjections can act as a predicate. For example: Tatyana ah! and he roars(P.).
In speech, interjections are pronounced with a special intonation (raising the tone, increasing the strength of the sound, in some cases - the length of the vowels).
Interjection categories. Based on what interjections express, they are usually divided into two groups: emotional and motivating (imperative).
Emotional Interjections ABOUT! Oh! Oh! Hooray! Bravo! Fathers! A! Wow! and others express feelings of joy, delight, approval, surprise, bewilderment, fear, and also give a description, assessment of events, states, etc. For example: Oh! Skalozub, my soul...(Gr.) - interjection serves to express feelings of joy, delight; Oh! My God! What will Princess Marya Aleksevna say?(Gr.) - interjections express fear.
Incentive interjections express various types of incentives: Out! Tsits! Well! Ssss! Shh! March! Come on!
For example: Grinev, having learned from him about the danger... commanded: march, march...(P.); Where, Ostap, is your sniffle? Come on, Cossack girl!(G.) Interjections calling for attention: Aw! Hey! Hello! For example: “Hey, Dunya! - the caretaker shouted, “put on the samovar.”(P.); Dasha silently watched as her father twisted the phone handle and shouted: “Hello, hello!”(Hump.)
Interjections also include speech formulas politeness, i.e. words and combinations expressing greeting, farewell, gratitude, etc.: Hello! Thank you! Goodbye! and etc.
According to their structure, interjections are divided into non-derivative and derivative. The first include interjections like ah, oh, ah, eh, well, wow etc. They consist of one vowel sound: A! eh!\ of two vowels ow!; from a vowel and a consonant: Oh! eh! bah!; of two vowels and a consonant: yeah! Wow! Alas!; from consonants: Brr! Some of the listed interjections can appear in doubled and tripled form: wow! hehehehe! Some of these interjections can be combined with particles (come on! come on!) or with a verb postfix (Come on!).
Derivative interjections correlate with words of other parts of speech: verbs (Look! Hello! Sorry), nouns (Fathers! Trouble! Horror!), pronouns (That's it!) adverbs (Full!): Derivative interjections can be compound: So much for you! That's the thing!
Condition category– this is (predicative adverbs, impersonal predicative words, predicatives) a lexical-grammatical category of words characterized by:
a) designating the state of living beings, nature, environment, sometimes with modal coloring and expression of evaluation (semantic feature);
b) the absence of declension and conjugation forms, i.e. immutability and the presence of analytical forms of tense created by the verbal connective (morphological feature);
c) use as a predicate (main member) in an impersonal sentence (syntactic feature).
1) words ending in -o, correlative with short adjectives in the neuter singular form and adverbs (warmly, quietly, cheerfully, early, funny, conveniently, etc.) or not correlative with them (it is possible, it is necessary, it is fearful, ashamed, ashamed and etc.);
2) words etymologically related to nouns, expressing an assessment of the state from the modal, emotional, moral and ethical side (it’s time, time, hunting, reluctance, laziness, lack of leisure, sin, pity, shame, etc.).
With a broad understanding of the category of state and its lexical composition, it includes not only impersonal predicative words, but also special short (predicative) adjectives that are not used in full form or do not have correlative full forms with the same meaning, denoting internal state, inclination, ability to take any action (powerful, willing, capable, must, intends, obligated, glad, inclined, capable, etc.). Impersonal predicative words, as a category of words that differ in semantic and functional respects from words of other parts of speech, begin to stand out in Russian grammars from the first third of the 19th century. Some scientists attributed them to verbal words (A. Kh. Vostokov, later A. A. Shakhmatov, who left some of them among nouns and adverbs), others - to short adjectives that take on the meaning of verbs (K. S. Aksakov). Some researchers considered them to be different parts speech (A. A. Potebnya, V. A. Bogoroditsky) or were not classified as any part of speech (A. M. Peshkovsky).
For the first time, these words were singled out as a special part of speech by L.V. Shcherba, calling them the “category of state,” and included in it not only impersonal predicative words, before and adverbs and adverbial expressions used with the meaning of state as a function of the predicate in a personal sentence ( married, on guard, on the alert, without memory, without feelings, in a state, etc.), as well as some short adjectives expressing a state or obligation (sad, intends, must, etc.).
V.V. Vinogradov identifies the category of state as a special part of speech, including indeclinable nominal words (glad, much, cheerful, sorry, etc.) and adverbial words based on their lexical meaning and morphological-syntactic features.
Not all grammarians recognize the right of a state category to be identified as a special part of speech (Fr. Travnichek, A. B. Shapiro). Among scientists who affirm the existence of such a part of speech in the Russian language, there is no consensus on the issue of its composition: the inclusion of short adjectives and adverbs used as a predicate in personal two-part sentences is considered controversial, since this violates the integrity of the syntactic feature of this part of speech (E.M. Galkina-Fedor to).
