Prokhorov, Mikhail Mikhailovich
(b. 04.11.1942) - special. on ontology and theory of knowledge, theory and history of worldviews; Doctor of Philosophy sciences, prof. Genus. in Novozybkov, Bryansk region. Graduated from Philosophy. Faculty of Leningrad State University(1969); asp. Philosopher Faculty (1972). In 1969-1972 - Art. Rev. Department of Philosophy North-Western correspondence course in Litech. Institute (Leningrad). In 1972-1977 - Art. Rev. Department of Philosophy Bryansk Institute of Mechanical Engineering. In 1977-1978 - Art. Lecturer, Department of Philosophy and political economics. Mogilev State ped. in-ta, then - art. lecturer, assistant professor Department of Philosophy Gorky State un-ta. In 1983-1984 he taught at the University of Oriente in Santiago de Cuba. Upon his return, he continued to work at GSU. In 1990-1991 - Art. n. With. (internship at the Philosophy Faculty of Leningrad State University). In 1992-1994 - head. Department of Philosophy Nizhny Novgorod State agricultural institute, then - prof. Department of Philosophy Nizhny Novgorod State un-ta. Since 1997 prof. Department of Methodology and philosopher Nizhegorsk state tech. University and Department of Philosophy. state Volzhsky engineer-pedagogical in-ta. Since 1988 - head. Department of Philosophy VGIPI. In 1994 he created the Nizhny Novgorod seminar "Theory and History of Worldviews". Dr. diss. - “Dialectics of contemplation and transformation in human activity: analysis of philosophical foundations” (1991). From the analysis of the problem. and logical P. was convinced that the main question of philosophy is subject to explication in the context of the relationship between man and the world (world relationship), and not vice versa. Philosophy interprets it as a theory of worldview that summarizes the results of science, culture, and ancient history. forms of worldview. The “historical form of worldview” bifurcates into “content” (worldview) and “form” (ways and means of expressing worldview). Different shapes express the same attitude to the world, the same form - different attitudes to the world. Identified and characterized three main ones. type of world relationship: contemplative (a person is “dissolved” in the world substance and its changes); relational or activist (the relation of existing things to man, the primacy of the subject’s activity is affirmed); co-evolutionary, which is qualitatively different from the previous two (the priority of one side of the world relationship over the other is replaced by their parity, equality); presented them as the main ways to identify a person. At the end of the 20th century, the activist worldview was replaced by a co-evolutionary one; P. represents ontology as a foundation. the history of the transition of the first type of world relationship through the second to the third, which must be taken into account in the theory of knowledge and logic. Showed the relevance of the problem of procedurality, its inexhaustibility and renewal of categorical forms of expression in thinking; the illegality of justifying the elimination of humans by systems with artificial intelligence references to the doctrine of development; the meaning of the transition from the “philosophy of substance” to the “philosophy of movement” and the need to follow the principle (method) of the correspondence of the logical to the historical.
Works: The place of the problem of historical and logical in Marxist philosophy // V. Leningrad State University. Ser. "Philosophy". 1971. No. 23; Development of the system of categories and the main question of philosophy // Problems of development of the system of categories of Marxist philosophy. Chelyabinsk, 1990; Dialectics of contemplation and transformation in human activity. Krasnoyarsk, 1990; In search of a new worldview. N. Novgorod, 1992; Philosophical metaphor for the ecological era. N. Novgorod, 1995; The philosophy of N.A. Berdyaev as a doctrine of the consciousness of freedom and creativity // Philosophy of consciousness in the 20th century: problems and solutions. Ivanovo, 1995; Imaginary logic of N.A. Vasilyev and its foundations // Logic, methodology, philosophy of science: In X volume T.VI. M. -Obninsk, 1995; Basic types of worldview // Pedagogical Review. 1996. No. 3; Modernity and worldview: changes in the foundations // Human World: Theory and History of Worldviews. N. Novgorod, 1997; On the ontology of play: three images // Ibid.; History and worldview. Pskov, 1998; Worldview self-identification of a person. N. Novgorod, 1998; The idea of historical philosophy // Rational and irrational in modern philosophy. Ivanovo, 1999; Worldview and methodology on the threshold of the 21st century: the opposition of dogmatism and potentialism // V. Tambov University. Ser. "Humanities." No. 2 (18). 2000; The future of Russia: co-evolutionary development strategy // Russia and Russians: choosing the path. N. Novgorod, 2000.
In 1896, Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity while working on phosphorescence in uranium salts. While studying Roentgen's work, he wrapped a fluorescent material, potassium uranyl sulfate, in an opaque material along with photographic plates in order to prepare for an experiment requiring bright light. sunlight. However, even before the experiment was carried out, Becquerel discovered that the photographic plates were completely overexposed. This discovery prompted Becquerel to study the spontaneous emission of nuclear radiation.
In 1903, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre and Marie Curie “in recognition of his outstanding services in the discovery of spontaneous radioactivity.”
Becquerel married in 1874 Lucie Zoe Marie Jamin, the daughter of a physics professor. Four years later, his wife died during childbirth, giving birth to a son, Jean, their only child, who later became a physicist. In 1890, Becquerel married Louise Désiré Laurier. After receiving the Nobel Prize, he continued to conduct teaching and scientific work.
Becquerel died in 1908 in Le Croisic (Brittany) during a trip with his wife to her family estate.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Antoine Henri Becquerel was awarded numerous honors, including the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society of London (1900), the Helmholtz Medal of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin (1901), and the Barnard Medal of the American National Academy of Sciences (1905). ). He was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1899, and in 1908 became one of its permanent secretaries. Becquerel was also a member of the French Physical Society, the Italian National Academy of Sciences, the Berlin Royal Academy of Sciences, the American National Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society of London.
Skladovskaya-Curie Maria
(1867-1934)
Polish-French experimental scientist, physicist, chemist, teacher, public figure
Marie Skłodowska-Curie (née Maria Skłodowska) was born on November 7, 1867 in Warsaw, Poland. She was the youngest of five children in the family of Władysław and Bronisława (Bogushka) Skłodowski. Maria was brought up in a family where science was respected. Her father taught physics at the gymnasium, and her mother, until she fell ill with tuberculosis, was the director of the gymnasium. Maria's mother died when the girl was eleven years old.
Maria Sklodowska was a brilliant student in both primary and secondary school. high school. At a young age, she felt the fascination of science and worked as a laboratory assistant in her cousin's chemistry laboratory.
There were two obstacles on the way to realizing Maria Skłodowska's dream of higher education: family poverty and the ban on admitting women to the University of Warsaw. Maria and her sister Bronya developed a plan: Maria would work as a governess for five years to enable her sister to graduate from medical school, after which Bronya would shoulder the costs of higher education sisters. Armor received medical education in Paris and, having become a doctor, invited Maria to her place. In 1891, Maria entered the Faculty of Natural Sciences at the University of Paris (Sorbonne). In 1893, having completed the course first, Maria received a licentiate degree in physics from the Sorbonne (equivalent to a master's degree). A year later she became a licentiate in mathematics.
In the same year, 1894, in the house of a Polish emigrant physicist, Maria Sklodowska met Pierre Curie. Pierre was the head of the laboratory at the Municipal School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry. By that time he had carried out important research on the physics of crystals and the dependence magnetic properties substances depending on temperature. Maria was researching the magnetization of steel. Having first become close because of their passion for physics, Maria and Pierre got married a year later. This happened shortly after Pierre defended his doctoral dissertation. Their daughter Irène (Irène Joliot-Curie) was born in September 1897. Three months later, Marie Curie completed her research on magnetism and began looking for a topic for her dissertation.
In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium compounds emit deeply penetrating radiation. Unlike X-rays, discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Röntgen, Becquerel radiation was not the result of excitation from an external energy source, such as light, but an internal property of uranium itself. Fascinated by this mysterious phenomenon and attracted by the prospect of starting new area research, Curie decided to study this radiation, which she later called radioactivity. Starting work at the beginning of 1898, she first of all tried to establish whether there were substances other than uranium compounds that emitted the rays discovered by Becquerel.
She came to the conclusion that of the known elements, only uranium, thorium and their compounds are radioactive. However, Curie soon made a much more important discovery: uranium ore, known as uranium pitchblende, emits Becquerel radiation stronger than uranium and thorium compounds, and at least four times stronger than pure uranium. Curie suggested that uranium resin blende contained an as yet undiscovered and highly radioactive element. In the spring of 1898, she reported her hypothesis and the results of her experiments to the French Academy of Sciences.
Then the Curies tried to isolate a new element. Pierre put aside his own research in crystal physics to help Maria. In July and December 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie announced the discovery of two new elements, which they named polonium (in honor of Poland, Marie's homeland) and radium.
In September 1902, the Curies announced that they had succeeded in isolating radium chloride from uranium resin blende. They were unable to isolate polonium, since it turned out to be a decay product of radium. Analyzing the connection, Maria found that atomic mass radium is 225. The radium salt gave off a bluish glow and warmth. This fantastic substance has attracted the attention of the whole world. Recognition and awards for its discovery came to the Curies almost immediately.
Having completed her research, Maria wrote her doctoral dissertation. The work was entitled "Research on Radioactive Substances" and was presented to the Sorbonne in June 1903.
According to the committee that awarded Curie her degree, her work was the greatest contribution ever made to science by a doctoral dissertation.
In December 1903, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics to Becquerel and the Curies. Marie and Pierre Curie received half the award "in recognition... of their joint research into the phenomena of radiation discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel." Curie became the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize. Both Marie and Pierre Curie were ill and could not travel to Stockholm for the award ceremony. They received it the following summer.
It was Marie Curie who coined the terms decay and transmutation.
The Curies noted the effect of radium on the human body (like Henri Becquerel, they received burns before realizing the dangers of handling radioactive substances) and suggested that radium could be used to treat tumors. The therapeutic value of radium was recognized almost immediately. However, the Curies refused to patent the extraction process or use the results of their research for any commercial purposes. In their opinion, extracting commercial benefits did not correspond to the spirit of science, the idea of free access to knowledge.
In October 1904, Pierre was appointed professor of physics at the Sorbonne, and a month later, Maria became the official head of his laboratory. In December, their second daughter, Eva, was born, who later became a concert pianist and biographer of her mother.
Marie lived a happy life - she had a job she loved, her scientific achievements received worldwide recognition, and she received the love and support of her husband. As she herself admitted: “I found in marriage everything I could have dreamed of at the time of our union, and even more.” But in April 1906, Pierre died in a street accident. Having lost her closest friend and workmate, Marie withdrew into herself. However, she found the strength to continue working. In May, after Marie refused the pension granted by the Ministry of Public Education, the faculty council of the Sorbonne appointed her to the department of physics, which had previously been headed by her husband. When Curie gave her first lecture six months later, she became the first woman to teach at the Sorbonne.
Generator simulator from the original experiment
régine debatty / Flickr
Polish scientists repeated Milgram's famous experiment on their compatriots. It turned out that the Poles of the 2010s are no less willing to hurt people by obeying authority than the Americans of the 1960s. The results of the work were published in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science in January 2017, brought to attention by a press release issued in March.
One of the most respected psychologists of the 20th century, Stanley Milgram, conducted his classic experiment in 1963, inspired by the crimes of the Nazis during World War II. He wanted to find out how much suffering could be caused ordinary people others if this is part of their duties. To do this, the scientist invited average people to participate in an experiment, the purpose of which was to study the effect of pain on learning.
In the experiment, participants drew fake lots to play the role of teacher or student. In fact, they always got the role of the teacher, and the student was portrayed by a professional actor. The student had to memorize pairs of words and then reproduce them on the teacher's command. At the same time, the teacher had at his disposal a plausible-looking current generator with 30 switches from 15 to 450 volts in 15-volt increments. For each mistake, the experimenter in charge of the work in a white coat ordered the teacher to give the student an electric shock, and with each subsequent mistake the voltage increased by 15 volts. The actor portrayed an increasing pain response, but the experimenter insisted on continuing the “training” by saying four phrases in succession: “Please continue,” “The experiment requires you to continue,” “It is absolutely necessary that you continue,” and “You have no other choice.” , you must continue." If the maximum tension was reached, it was applied three times, after which the session was stopped. Before the experiment began, the teacher himself was given a demonstration electric shock of 45 volts.
Experimental design: E - experimenter, T - teacher, L - student
Wikimedia Commons
The American experiment was supposed to serve only to fine-tune the methodology, after which Milgram planned to conduct it in Germany in order to better understand the psychology of the citizens of this country during the war. However, the results turned out to be very eloquent: on average, 65 percent of the participants, submitting to the authority of the experimenter, brought the student’s punishment to the maximum, despite his “pain” and protests. Only about 12 percent stopped at 300 volts when the actor began to depict unbearable suffering. “I found so much obedience that I don’t see the need to conduct this experiment in Germany,” the scientist said.
Milgram's experiment was repeated several times in the United States, Holland, Germany, Spain, Italy, Austria and Jordan with similar results (the average proportion of participants who completed it was 61 percent in the United States, and 66 percent outside the United States, the range was from 28 to 91 percent). Minor changes in the study design, designed to exclude the influence of such factors as gender, social status, the authority of the scientific center, ignorance of the dangers of current and possible sadistic tendencies, did not significantly affect the results, nor did the year of the work. In the countries of Central and of Eastern Europe Such experiments have not yet been carried out.
Employees of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Wroclaw decided to correct this situation. “Our goal was to check how high the level of obedience is among the inhabitants of Poland. The particular history of the Central European region has made the question of obedience to authority of exceptional interest to us,” they write.
To reduce the psychological trauma of the participants, scientists used a modification of the experiment based on the findings of American psychologist Jerry Berger. Burger). He noted that the majority (79 percent) of participants in the original work who reached the 10th switch also reached the last, 30th. Therefore, the level of submission can be judged by the first 10 indicators of shock tension. Polish psychologists used this design to make the experiment more ethical. 40 men and 40 women aged from 18 to 69 years were invited to participate.
90 percent of the participants, obeying the authority of the experimenter, reached the last switch. The rate of failure to complete the experiment was three times higher if the role of the student was performed by a woman, but the authors note that due to the small sample size, it is impossible to draw clear conclusions from this.
“Our research once again demonstrates the enormous power of the situation in which people find themselves, and how easily they agree to things that are unpleasant for themselves. Half a century after Milgram’s work, a striking majority of subjects are still willing to shock a helpless person,” Tomasz Grzyb, one of the authors of the work, commented on the results.
Polish researchers led by psychologist Tomasz Grzyb repeated an experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram almost half a century ago.
Then, in 1963, Milgram recruited volunteers to participate in an experiment, who were told that the study would study the effect of pain on memory. They were told that one of the participants would memorize pairs of words from an extensive list - in reality, the role of the “learner” was played by a dummy actor. The participants were asked to check how well the student remembered the words; mistakes were “punished” with electric shocks of varying strengths.
After each press of the switch, the actor screamed loudly, moaned, knocked on the wall and demanded that the bullying stop. From a certain point, the tension had to be increased with each new mistake. In the event that the “teacher” hesitated, doubting whether to increase the tension, the experimenter insisted on continuing the experiment, assuring that the responsibility for the life and health of the “student” was not borne by the “teacher,” but by the organizer of the experiment. At the highest voltage, the actor stopped making any sounds and showing signs of life altogether. The results of the experiment were impressive: two-thirds of the experiment participants were able to bring the voltage to the maximum (450 volts) - they were not embarrassed by screams or knocking on the wall.
All participants in the experiment were promised a monetary reward of 4.5 dollars - they knew that they would receive it regardless of how the test went; in fact, they were paid for coming to Milgram's laboratory. Later, scientists repeated this experiment on Yale University students, who did not receive any money for their participation.
The experiment was widely discussed and many people, learning about it, say that they could never hurt another and no authority could influence their opinion. Polish researchers decided to find out if this is really the case.
They did not completely copy Milgram's experiment. They invited 80 men and women aged 18 to 69 to participate. In front of each of them there were 10 buttons, each of which was responsible for a different voltage. Participants in the experiment could shock the subject who was in the next room - in reality, he did not feel these shocks and was simply pretending.
As in the original experiment, the experimenter insisted on continuing the experiment, using the phrases “it is necessary that you continue” and “you have no choice, you must continue.” Despite the screams and suffering of the subject, at the experimenter’s command, 90% of the participants agreed to increase the voltage - their share was even higher than in Milgram’s experiment. However, if the “student” was a woman, the subjects refused to continue 3 times more often than if there was a man in her place.
In general, the years go by, and most of us, scientists conclude, are still capable of causing pain to others, guided by an authoritative opinion.
Maria Skłodowska-Curie - Polish-French experimental scientist (physicist, chemist), teacher, public figure. Twice Nobel Prize winner: in physics (1903) and chemistry (1911). She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw. Pierre Curie's wife worked with him on radioactivity research. Together with her husband, she discovered the elements radium and polonium.
Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw. Her childhood was marred by the early loss of one of her sisters and, soon after, her mother. Even as a schoolgirl, she was distinguished by her extraordinary diligence and hard work. Maria strove to complete the work in the most thorough manner, avoiding inaccuracies, often at the expense of sleep and regular nutrition. She studied so intensively that, after graduating from school, she was forced to take a break to improve her health.
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Maria sought to continue her education, but Russian Empire, which at that time included Poland, women's opportunities to obtain higher scientific education were limited. The Sklodowski sisters, Maria and Bronislava, agreed to take turns working as governesses for several years in order to receive an education one by one. Maria worked for several years as a teacher-governess while Bronislava studied at medical school in Paris. Then Maria, at the age of 24, was able to go to the Sorbonne in Paris, where she studied chemistry and physics while Bronislava earned money to educate her sister.
Maria Sklodowska became the first female teacher in the history of the Sorbonne. In 1894, in the house of a Polish emigrant physicist, Maria Sklodowska met Pierre Curie. Pierre was the head of the laboratory at the Municipal School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry. By that time, he had conducted important research on the physics of crystals and the dependence of the magnetic properties of substances on temperature. Maria was researching the magnetization of steel, and her Polish friend hoped that Pierre could provide Maria with the opportunity to work in his laboratory. Together they began to study the anomalous rays (X-rays) that were emitted by uranium salts. Without any laboratory and working in a shed on the Rue Laumont in Paris, from 1898 to 1902 they processed eight tons of uranium ore and isolated one hundredth of a gram of a new substance - radium. Polonium was later discovered, an element named after Marie Curie's homeland. In 1903, Marie and Pierre Curie received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for outstanding services in joint research into the phenomena of radiation." While at the award ceremony, the couple think about creating their own laboratory and even an institute of radioactivity. Their idea was brought to life, but much later.
After tragic death husband Pierre Curie in 1906, Marie Skłodowska-Curie inherited his chair at the University of Paris.
In 1910, she managed, in collaboration with André Debierne, to isolate pure metallic radium, and not its compounds, as had happened before. Thus, a 12-year cycle of research was completed, as a result of which it was proven that radium is an independent chemical element.
At the end of 1910, Skłodowska-Curie, at the insistence of a number of French scientists, was nominated for elections to the French Academy of Sciences. Previously, no woman had been elected to the French Academy of Sciences, so the nomination immediately led to fierce controversy between supporters and opponents of her membership in this conservative organization. As a result of several months of insulting controversy, Skłodowska-Curie's candidacy was rejected in the elections by a margin of just one vote.
In 1911, Skłodowska-Curie received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for outstanding services in the development of chemistry: the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element." Skłodowska-Curie became the first (and to date the only woman in the world) to win the Nobel Prize twice.
Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute established the Radium Institute for radioactivity research. Sklodowska-Curie was appointed director of the department basic research and medical uses of radioactivity. Immediately after the start of active hostilities on the fronts of the First World War, Maria Skłodowska-Curie began to purchase portable X-ray machines for scanning the wounded with personal funds left over from the Nobel Prize. Mobile X-ray units, powered by a dynamo attached to a car engine, traveled around hospitals, helping surgeons perform operations. At the front, these points were nicknamed “little Curies.” During the war, she trained military medics in the applications of radiology, such as detecting shrapnel in the body of a wounded person using X-rays. In the front-line zone, Curie helped create radiological installations and supply first aid stations with portable X-ray machines. She summarized her accumulated experience in the monograph “Radiology and War” in 1920.
IN last years Throughout her life, she continued to teach at the Radium Institute, where she supervised students' work and actively promoted the use of radiology in medicine. She wrote a biography of Pierre Curie, published in 1923. Periodically, Sklodowska-Curie made trips to Poland, which gained independence at the end of the war. There she advised Polish researchers. In 1921, together with her daughters, Sklodowska-Curie visited the United States to accept a gift of 1 g of radium to continue the experiments. During her second visit to the USA (1929), she received a donation, with which she purchased another gram of radium for therapeutic use in one of the Warsaw hospitals. But as a result of many years of working with radium, her health began to deteriorate noticeably.
Marie Sklodowska-Curie died in 1934 from aplastic anemia. Her death is a tragic lesson - when working with radioactive substances, she did not take any precautions and even wore an ampoule of radium on her chest as a talisman. She was buried next to Pierre Curie in Pante, Paris.
