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1 Yusupova Lyalya Gainullovna Ph.D. ped. Sciences, Associate Professor FSBEI HPE "Ural State Mining University" Yekaterinburg, Sverdlovsk Region Kazykhanova Gulgena Kharisovna Master's student FSBEI HPE "Bashkir State Agrarian University" Ufa, Republic of Bashkortostan FUNCTIONING AND ROLE OF TERMS IN LANGUAGE Abstract: this article discusses the issues of the functioning of terms , their relationship and differences from common words. The authors present the most common ways of forming terms in the language. Key words: terms, terminology, methods of forming terms, lexical units. In the modern era, there has been a significant quantitative growth of terms in various fields of science and technology. Terms actively penetrate into colloquial speech and replenish our vocabulary. In this regard, the problems of studying the peculiarities of the functioning of terms, their relationship and difference from commonly used words become relevant. Terms, as defined by A.A. Reformatsky, these are words limited by their special purpose; words that strive to be unambiguous as the exact expression of concepts and names of things. Terms exist not just in language, but as part of a certain terminology. Terminology is a set of terms for a given branch of production, activity, knowledge, forming a special sector of vocabulary that is most accessible to conscious regulation and ordering.

2 The well-known statement of V.V. Vinogradov, according to which “a word performs a nominative or definitive function, i.e. or is a means of clear designation, then it is a scientific term." The term is a carrier of collective professional scientific memory. Terms help to understand the essence of a problem, a specific situation that occurs in special areas, thus contributing to the development of scientifically cognitive and transformative human activity. Terms express special scientific and technical concepts; these are the names of special objects, tools, various phenomena, processes, qualities that are used in one or another specific field of science and technology. The peculiarity of the terms is that they are created in the process of production and scientific activity and therefore function only among people who have the appropriate knowledge and remain incomprehensible to people who are not involved in this specialty. For example: der FreisсНnitt “blank cutting” (machinery); die Kurrlung “clutch” (transp.); der НubsсНrauber “helicopter” (av.). If in common language(outside of this terminology) a word can be polysemantic, then, falling into a certain terminology, it acquires unambiguity. The term does not need context, like an ordinary word, so it 1) is a member of a certain terminology, which acts instead of context, 2) can be used in isolation, for example, in the texts of registers or orders in technology, 3) for which it should not be unambiguous at all in the language, but within the given terminology. It should be noted that commonly used words and terms influence each other. This means that commonly used words can become terms, and terms, on the contrary, can move into the sphere of commonly used words.

3 Let's consider the most common ways of forming terms from commonly used words: the formation of terms due to the similarity of the designated objects in function, cf.: Spinne spider and fishing tool in mining; the similarity of the designated parts of objects according to their location in the whole object, cf.: Stirn forehead and frontal part in mechanical engineering; similarity of designated objects in shape, cf.: Creis circle and circular circuit, circuit in electrical engineering. Terms in the German language are formed in various ways, but the most common way of forming terms is: the morphological method (or affix word production) and the method of compounding. Less common methods: conversion, syntactic, lexical-semantic. Thus, there are simple, derivative, complex, converse and other terms. The productivity and typicality of the ways of forming terms is revealed through the prism of parts of speech, which, in turn, participate in the formation of terminology. Technical terms in German are individual words or combinations of words that express technical concepts. Mandatory requirements for a term are complete definition of meaning and stability of use. When translating technical terms from German, serious attention should be paid to correctly disclosing the meaning of the terms. Technical terms are distinguished by their polysemy, so finding the correct translation of a term that corresponds to a given specific text is possible only when the translator is well versed in the subject matter of this terminology. The same term can be used in different fields of science and technology, and, therefore, its translation will depend on the field in which it is applied. Thus, the term Freilauf in mechanical engineering means “free

4 stroke", "idle", and in hydraulic engineering the same term is translated as "idle spillway" or "idle descent". Words that have a common meaning can be used as terms, for example: das Bett 1. bed, 2. bed; die Luft 1. air, 2. gap; die Mutter 1. mother, 2. nut; die SoНle 1. sole, 2. horizon; layer (horizontal). Particular attention should be paid to lexical units that are externally and even internally the same, but cause false associations due to the presence of a different meaning in them: die RadioastronoMie radioastronomy, but das Radioelement is not a radio element, but a radioactive element. In conclusion, I would like to note the importance of knowing professional terminology in a foreign language, and how this helps to overcome obstacles that may arise during professional activities. References 1. Vasilyeva N.V. Term // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. V.N. Yartseva. M.: Sov. encyclopedia, S Danilenko V.P. Lexico-semantic and grammatical features of words-terms // Research on Russian terminology S Petrov V.V. Semantics of scientific terms. Novosibirsk: Nauka, p. 4. Reformatsky A.A. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow, Superanskaya A.V. Terminology and nomenclature // Problems of definitions of terms in dictionaries of different types. M., S. Tolikina E.N. Some linguistic problems of studying the term // Linguistic problems of scientific and technical terminology. M.: Nauka, Florensky P.A. Term // Questions of linguistics Yusupova L.G. On the functions of youth language in Germany: Materials of the IV International Scientific and Practical Conference “New Word in Science:

5 development prospects" (Cheboksary, May 29, 2015) / L.G. Yusupova, G.Kh. Kazykhanov. Cheboksary: ​​CNS “Interactive Plus”, S. Yusupova L.G. Youth language of Germany and trends in its development / L.G. Yusupova, G.Kh. Kazykhanova // New word in science: development prospects: Materials III International scientific and practical conference. Cheboksary, S Yusupova L.G. Linguistic aspects of communication theory / L.G. Yusupova, O.I. Tayupova // Journal “Bulletin of the Bashkir University”. Ufa: Bashkir State University Publishing House, S Yusupova L.G. The role of language in intercultural communication / L.G. Yusupova, S.A. Pesina // Education and science in modern conditions: Materials of the II international. scientific-practical conf. (Cheboksary, January 15). Cheboksary: ​​CNS “Interactive Plus”, S. Yusupova L.G. The nature of linguistic knowledge / L.G. Yusupova, S.A. Pesin // Achievements of university science: Collection of materials of the IX International Scientific and Practical Conference / Under the general. ed. S.S. Chernova. Novosibirsk: CNRS, p. 13. Yusupova L.G. Language and thinking as the main direction of research in cognitive linguistics / L.G. Yusupova, S.A. Pesina // Achievements of university science: Collection of materials of the IX International Scientific and Practical Conference / Under the general. ed. S.S. Chernova. Novosibirsk: CNRS, p. 14. Yusupova S.A. Essential features of the terminological system: Materials of the International Scientific and Practical Conference “Language. Right. Society" / S.A. Yusupova, S.A. Pesina. Penza: RSCI. 15. Yusupova L.G. Formation of terms in cognitive science: Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference “Language. Right. Society". Penza: RSCI. 16. Androutsoulos, Jannis K.: DeutscNe JugendspräcNe: UntersusHungen 17. Lewandowskij TN. LinguistiscNes WörterbusN 3. Heidelberg; Wiesbaden: Quelle u. Meyer, 1994.

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N.M. RUKHLENKO,
With. Orlik, Cherninsky district,
Belgorod region

What are the terms?

Grade 10

Topic: “Special vocabulary. Terms and terminology".

The purpose of the lesson: introduce students to concepts using specific examples term And terminology, reveal the role and meaning of terms in language, and educate students to pay attention to ongoing language processes.

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DURING THE CLASSES

Teacher: Guys! Most words in the Russian language are characterized by polysemy, but there are some words that, by the nature of their use, should be unambiguous. Ambiguity will prevent them from fulfilling their primary function. In physics, chemistry, mathematics, philosophy, medicine, politics, art, etc. we need words-names that would always be perceived equally by everyone. As you probably already guessed, these words are called... Yes, terms. Terms- this is one of two groups of special vocabulary - words and combinations of words used primarily by people of a certain branch of knowledge or profession. Each science has its own system of terms called terminology. Today we will get acquainted with the concepts term And terminology, let's talk about the role of terms in language. So, let's get to work!
Remember as many terms as possible that are used in physics, chemistry, Russian, literature, music, and painting. (Students name the terms.)
And now I name the term, and you name the field of science in which this term is used: ampere, alkali, homonym, sharp, octave, carmine, hertz, trochee, hydrate, sulfate, vector etc.
Think and continue the sentence: “ Characteristic features terms are..." (Polysemy, unambiguity, lack of special emotional-expressive coloring, emotionality, specialization.) How do you understand such a sign of terms as specialization?

Students: Specialization is use in a particular field.

Teacher: Guys! The term is usually used in only one area, for example: phoneme, subject- in linguistics, cupola- in metallurgy. But the same term can be used in different areas. Moreover, in each case the term has its own special meaning. Think and say in what areas of science the words are used: operation, assimilation, iris, reversion.

Students: Term operation used in medicine, military and banking. Term assimilation used in linguistics, biology, ethnography; iris– in medicine and biology (botany); reversion– in biology, technology, law.

Teacher: Using the explanatory dictionary, determine the lexical meaning of the terms in each specific case. (Students work with dictionaries.)
In the Russian language, as indeed in all languages, there are frequent cases when a word is used both in a general meaning and as a special term. Let's take the floor roller, let's turn to the explanatory dictionary.

Students: Roller- this is a small shaft, and roller– technical term.

Teacher: Choose your own examples.

Students: A cap– headdress and a cap– a general heading for several articles in a newspaper. Basement- a room under the house and basement- a large newspaper article that occupies the entire lower part of the newspaper page. Band- a stripe of something and band- newspaper page.

Teacher: Conclude: what happens to a word if it becomes a term?

Students: Becoming a term, the word loses its emotionality and expressiveness. This is especially noticeable if we compare commonly used words in the diminutive form and the corresponding terms ( cam in the child and cam in car, front sight- a small fly and front sight meaning “a small protrusion on the front of the barrel of a firearm used for aiming” cheeks child and cheeks at a machine gun, etc.). The diminutive form of a common word very often becomes a term. tooth from the word tooth meaning “bone formation, organ in the mouth for grasping, biting and chewing food” and the term clove- cutting tooth of a machine or tool. Tongue from the word language in the meaning of “movable muscular organ in the oral cavity” and the term tongue- a small process at the base of the leaf blade of cereals and some other plants. Hammer from the word hammer in the meaning of “a tool for hammering, striking” and the term hammer - one of the auditory ossicles of the middle ear and the name of various percussion devices in mechanisms.

Teacher: Think and say: terms consist of only one word or can consist of several words, i.e. be a combination of words? Give examples.

Students: Terms can consist of more than just one word. There are terms that are a combination of words: internal combustion engine, sharp corner, perfect view(about the verb) , Future tense(about the verb) , alternating current, command staff, steam hammer, acid residue, voiced consonants, adjective.

Teacher: By origin, terms can be either original or borrowed. Moreover, in any language it is noted a large number of borrowed terms. Name as many borrowed sports, musical, socio-political terms as possible. (Students give examples.)
What terms do you know borrowed from English, Italian, German languages? (Students name the terms.)
A significant part of the terms is formed from Russian word-formation material. There are terms that are formed from Russian and borrowed morphemes. Which of these terms are formed only from Russian word-formation material: striker, ground, biocurrents, striker, scion, laticifers, foam concrete, rootstock? (Students complete the task. Answer: all terms except biocurrents And foam concrete, formed from Russian word-formation material.)
What happens to an ambiguous word if it becomes a term?

Students: If a polysemantic word becomes a term, then it begins to be used in a limited, special meaning.

Teacher: Do you think the same word can be used as a term in different sciences?

Students: Yes maybe. But in every science, the term has one, strictly defined meaning, characteristic specifically for this field.

Teacher: Let's work with the word appeal. Open the explanatory dictionary of S.I. Ozhegova.

Students: Word appeal in general use it has a number of meanings: “request, appeal” (address to the people), "use, use" (handling of weapons), "attitude, action" (affectionate address) etc. Word appeal as a term used in several sciences: astronomy (appeal(“movement of planets in orbit”) around the Sun), economics (capital circulation), biology (turning a pupa into a butterfly), linguistics (address - a word or combination of words that names the person to whom the speech is addressed).

Teacher: Terms can be highly specialized and widely used, generally understandable. Highly specialized mantissa, median, normal(mathematics); beta rays, positronium, atom(physics). Now think and give examples of commonly used, commonly understood terms. (Students give examples: perpendicular, circle, triangle, angle, atom, molecule, force of attraction, semiconductor and etc.)
The boundaries between highly specialized and widely used terms are changeable and fluid. There is a movement of part of highly specialized vocabulary into commonly used vocabulary, which is often no longer recognized as terminological. Let's try to establish the reasons contributing to this movement. Show this with specific examples.

Students: This movement is facilitated by an increase in the general educational level of the population, the importance of this or that science, or branch of the economy at the moment. Thus, the following highly specialized words have become widely used: polyethylene, polymers, synthetic resins, apogee, perigee, weightlessness, sound chamber. This happened thanks to the rapid development of astronautics and chemistry and the interest of people in this.

Teacher: Does its structure contribute to the transition of a term to the category of generally understood words?

Students: Yes, it helps. Words consisting of elements whose meaning is fairly clear tend to be learned more easily. For example: seamless, adhesive concrete, rocket launcher, glass wool, compact, radio pilot. The terms that arose as a result of rethinking words are easily understood and assimilated. An example is the names of many parts of mechanisms that are similar in appearance or function to household items: fork, wiper, skid and etc.
An important role in popularizing the term is played by fiction. It was fiction that contributed to the acquaintance of a wide readership with many maritime terms. These include: emergency, break the bells, cockpit, brig, drift, galley, bridge, wheelhouse, gangway, schooner and etc.

Teacher: Terms of Greco-Latin origin are widespread in all languages. In different languages ​​they differ in phonetic pronunciation features, but go back to the same root. All European languages ​​are characterized by the use of Greek and Latin roots to create new terms. Give examples of such words. (Students name the words.)
What do you think determines the use of Greco-Latin elements to form terms?

Students: Latin has long been the language of science. This special role Latin language prepared the possibility of using its elements for the formation of scientific terms, given that in different fields of knowledge many terms of Latin or Greek origin already existed. They served as a certain standard for the formation of new terms and at the same time ensured, to a certain extent, the intelligibility of new terms for speakers of different languages, since they created a relative commonality of lexical meaning and word-formation elements.

Teacher: It is also important that Latin and Ancient Greek are already dead languages. Why is this important to us?

Students: This facilitates the use of their elements in new combinations and makes it possible for the conscious special construction of terms, which ensures their consistency for each branch of knowledge. This is what all industry terminologies strive for.

Teacher: What international word-forming elements do you know? Remember and write down the terms that contain these elements. (Students complete this task.)
In language, there is a phenomenon of the budding of individual meanings of national words and the transition of these meanings into terminological vocabulary, in other words, a rethinking of words occurs, most often on the basis of metaphorization. The opposite phenomenon is the determinologization of a word, i.e. the transition of individual meanings of words-terms into the national vocabulary is less common, but still occurs. Explain these phenomena using words as an example apron, body, watch, shoe, comb, root, hammer, fatigue, zenith, apogee, vacuum.

Students: Using words as an example apron, body, shoe, comb, root, hammer, fatigue we are observing the process of terminology of well-known words, and using the example of words watch, zenith, vacuum, apogee– the process of determinologization.

Apron– the name of different types of covers, car casings.

Body- gun barrel.

Shoe- a device that serves as a support.

Crest- a device, tool, similar in shape or purpose to a comb.

Root- the main part of the word.

Hammer- a striking device in some mechanisms.

Night watch, labor watch, at the zenith of glory, spiritual vacuum, vacuum of trust, at the apogee of glory.

Teacher: Do you think the advantages or disadvantages of terminology include the presence of synonyms for some terms?

Students: Of course, to the disadvantages.

Teacher: Give examples of such cases.

Students: Spelling - spelling, prefix - prefix, ending - inflection, alphabet - alphabet and etc.

Teacher: To conclude this lesson, I will ask you to answer the following questions:

1) What is the term?
2) What is terminology?
3) Which of the two definitions of the term is more accurate? Justify your answer.

Term is a word or combination of words that is the officially accepted and legalized name of a concept in science, art, technology, etc.

Term is a word or phrase that is the name of a scientific, technical, agricultural, etc. concepts.

4) Continue the sentence: “The term differs from other words (non-terms) in that it is, in principle, in this terminology... (unambiguous).
5) Give examples of commonly understood and highly specialized terms.

Then the teacher summarizes the lesson, assigns grades and offers homework (prepare a message on the topic “Terms and terminology”).

Terms are words that are the exact designation of a specific concept of any special field of science, technology, art, social life, etc. Let us recall that a concept is a thought about the general essential properties, connections and relationships of objects or phenomena of objective reality. As a form of thinking, a concept is inextricably linked with language. Every concept is formed and realized in a word or phrase. Formation of concepts is the most important condition scientific knowledge.

The role of terms in science is great. It has been established, for example, that the idea of ​​inertia was already known to Galileo's predecessors. But only from the moment when Galileo gave this phenomenon the name inertia, the very idea of ​​inertia was clarified and the concept entered scientific circulation. In a number of cases, the transition from assumptions and conjectures to exact knowledge is accomplished through the approval of the corresponding term. That is why all great scientists paid special attention to the creation and development of scientific terminology.

M.V. Lomonosov made a significant contribution to the development of Russian terminology. It belongs to the names: northern lights, earth's axis, air pump, specific gravity, etc. By fixing the time of birth of a particular term, one can judge the development of science, its problems, objects of research, and the emergence of new scientific directions.

It is quite natural that terms are quite often found in the speech of people of different specialties: engineers, doctors, economists, lawyers, teachers, agronomists, etc. However, not everyone and not always use them skillfully, do not think about whether the terms are understandable to listeners, do not take into account Peculiarities of perception of the semantics of a word in spoken speech. The difference in the understanding of the content of words between the sender and the recipient reduces the effectiveness of perception.

In the process of communication, people often have to explain how to understand what is being discussed, to clarify the meaning of a particular word or expression. Speech practice has developed several ways of explaining words. They are used by lexicographers when compiling dictionaries; teachers, teaching schoolchildren and students; politicians, diplomats, lawyers interpreting the meaning of documents and laws. Everyone should master the techniques of explaining words if they are responsible for their performances, their speech, and are interested in improving its culture.

Logical definition. Explanation of the meaning of the word table in explanatory dictionary refers to logical definition, that is, the definition of a concept through the nearest genus and specific difference. A logical definition is considered the most rational way of interpreting scientific terms.

Let's look at how a logical definition is constructed.

Let's take, for example, the definitions of two concepts: logic - the science of the laws and forms of correct thinking; pedagogy is the science of upbringing, education and training. First of all, the genus of the concept being defined is called, i.e. the answer to the question “what is it?” is given. - the science. Then the signs of a specific concept of the same kind are indicated - “about the laws and forms of correct thinking” (logic); “on upbringing, education and training” (pedagogy). The advantage of a logical definition is that not all, but only the distinctive specific characteristics of the defined concept are listed.

Selection of synonyms. A common method is the synonymous method, that is, an explanation using words that differ in sound but have a common meaning. For example, confrontation - opposition, confrontation (of social systems, ideological and political principles, etc.), clash; aggressive - offensively aggressive; alliance - union, connection. This allows, through a word familiar to listeners, to reveal the meaning of a scientific term and make it understandable.

Descriptive method. Quite often, when explaining terminology, a descriptive method is used, in which the meaning of the concept denoted by the term is conveyed through a description of this concept. Thus, the socio-political term conformism is interpreted as “accommodation, passive acceptance of the appropriate order of things, prevailing thoughts, etc.” and it is further emphasized that conformism means the absence of one’s own position, unprincipled and uncritical adherence to any model that has the greatest strength (the opinion of the majority , recognized authority, tradition, etc.).

The most significant group in special vocabulary are scientific and technical terms, forming a variety of terminological systems.

Terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used to logically accurately define special concepts, establish the content of concepts, and their distinctive features. Consequently, for a term (as opposed to a non-term, i.e. any word in general) the main characteristic function is the definition function, called definitive (lat. Difinito – definition), and the terminological disclosure of the content of the concept itself is a definition.

The emergence and functioning of such vocabulary is due to the development of science, technology, agriculture, art, etc.; it has a pronounced social character and is under the control of society.

Terminology is one of the most mobile, rapidly growing parts of the national vocabulary. The growth of scientific and technical knowledge has caused the emergence of a huge number of new concepts and, accordingly, their names. Happening double process: a sharp increase in special terms available only to specialists, the number of which in every highly developed language is growing enormously and numbers in the millions, many times exceeding the generally accepted vocabulary, and at the same time, the intensive penetration of special terminology into the general literary language. Special terminology becomes the main source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the literary language.

The role of terminological vocabulary in the modern Russian language has increased incredibly. Interesting in this regard are the data regarding sports terminology: V. I. Dahl’s dictionary contains only 200 sports terms, D. N. Ushakov’s dictionary contains 800, MAS contains 1400, and in total there are over 25 thousand of them in modern sports terminology. In this sense, data from non-logical dictionaries are also indicative, in which more than half of the words (up to 80%) are terms.

Terminological vocabulary is contrasted with commonly used, Firstly, its meaningful connection with objects of a certain special area, Secondly, in that within the framework of special communication it has a very high frequency, and from the point of view of the vocabulary as a whole, it is only to a very small extent included in the sphere of sufficiently frequent vocabulary. Currently, terminology has turned into a special scientific discipline, in the development of which, along with linguists, specialists in computer science, science, and representatives of all sciences participate.

Terms constitute the most regulated part of the vocabulary of a language, in a certain sense the most artificial, deliberately created and providing for regulation. In this regard, they have a number of essential features, according to which the terms in the most general view are opposed to all other words (non-terms).

Consider these signs.

1. The meanings of the terms are specific in the sense that they express scientific concepts that require a fairly precise definition in accordance with the level of development of a particular branch of knowledge. Consequently, the very nature of the term excludes or at least greatly limits semantic uncertainty (non-limitability), which is one of the essential features of the word. If the semantics of an ordinary word correlates with practical ideas about a particular object (“nearest” meaning, in the terminology of A. Potebnya), then the semantics of the term reflects the content of a scientific, deeper concept (“further meanings”).

Wed. definition of the lexical meaning of a word midnight –"middle of the night, the time corresponding to twelve o'clock at night" (MAS, 3, 264) and the definition of the corresponding geographical term - “the moment of time at which the true Sun or the average Sun crosses the meridian above the horizon (i.e., is at the lower culmination)” (Encyclopedic Dictionary of Geographical Terms, 293). Another example - historicism(as a word) is interpreted as follows: “interest in the past, its reproduction in works of art.” The Futurists... ridiculed the exaggerated historicism of the Symbolists(Bryusov) (MAS, 1, 690); historicism(as a term) - “a word that has come out of living word usage due to the fact that the object it denotes is no longer known to speakers as a real part of their everyday experience” (Dictionary of Linguistic Terms, 185).

In connection with the indicated functional and semantic features of the terms, they are always direct and neutral names, devoid of connotative components.

2. Terms always function as members of certain term systems. Within the terminology of a particular industry, they are naturally related to each other, and the content of one term is formed and interpreted against the background of others. In terminological systems, the systematic features of vocabulary appear most clearly, especially in a paradigmatic sense. This is manifested, in particular, in the presence of regular oppositions, cf.: archaisms– neologisms(antonyms); lexical archaisms– lexical neologisms, semantic archaisms– semantic neologisms(equivalent oppositions).

Semantic relationships in terminology are identified and emphasized by systematic design. Thus, the names of linguistic units use the same suffixes (phoneme, lexeme, morpheme), in the names of branches of linguistics (as in other sciences) the model of complex words with the element -logy (morphology, phonology, lexicology, phraseology, morphonology, accentology etc.). The names of atomic accelerators are created according to the model with the component -tron (bevatron, betatron, cosmotron, synchrotron, synchrophasotron, synchrocyclotron, phasotron, cyclotron); the names of newly discovered components of a living cell are decorated using the element -soma (chromosome, ribosome, informasome, centrosome). The models by which terms of the same series are formed can be specialized within individual sciences. So, in geology, using the suffix -it mineral names are formed from proper names (altaite, baicalite, voluevite, vorobievite, lomonosovite etc.), and in medical terminology a homonymous suffix is ​​used to form the names of inflammatory diseases from the names of organs of the human body (colitis, nephritis, gastritis, meningitis, cholecystitis, bronchitis, pleurisy and so on.). It is in the use of certain models that the regularity of terms and the possibility of their artificial and conscious formation are clearly demonstrated.

3. The ideal requirement that can be presented to a term is the requirement of unambiguity and absence of synonyms. Many highly specialized terms meet this requirement and thus fundamentally differ from ordinary words, potentially configured for polysemy. In terminology, however, homonymy is allowed, but of a special type. Different term systems may use the same lexemes to denote different concepts. For example, the word reduction as a chemical term it means “relief from oxidation”, in biology it means “simplification of the body associated with loss of function”, in technology it means “a decrease in pressure or tension”, in linguistics it means “weakening the sonority of vowels”, in medicine it means “insertion a piece of bone to replace the damaged one,” in history – the confiscation of indigenous lands from feudal lords in Sweden in the second half of the 18th century. From a lexicological point of view, all these meanings can be considered as polysemy, but since each of these terms is included in its own terminological system and, functioning in it, does not in any way correlate with another that externally coincides with it, this phenomenon is more correctly defined as intersystem terminological homonymy.

An equally ideal requirement is the absence of synonymous doublets for terms . The absence of synonymy, as well as the absence of ambiguity, is intended to provide terminological systems with special clarity and certainty. It would seem that in this area, where names are created artificially and often become the subject of discussion and choice, the above requirements of unambiguity and absence of synonymy are easily achievable. In reality, in any terminology we encounter violations of these ideal requirements. Let us give examples of facts already known to us. Term token used in lexicology in two meanings – “generalized invariant” and “outer shell of a word”; to denote the minimal components of the meaning of a word along with the generally accepted term sema are used such as semantic feature, semantic multiplier, elementary significance, quantum of meaning etc. In linguistics, polysemy of this kind is regular, when the same term is used to designate the object of study and the corresponding branch of science, cf.: lexicography – 1. "A set of dictionaries"; 2. "The science of compiling dictionaries"; syntax – 1. “Types of sentences and laws of their formation”; 2. "The Science of Supply."

In real-life terminologies there are many terms that are characterized by the so-called categorical ambiguity, which consists in the fact that the content of a concept, expressed verbally in a term, consists of characteristics that simultaneously belong to several categories that have non-genus-specific connections among themselves: process and quantity (pressure), process and phenomenon (studying) etc. For example, one of the types of terms that have it are nouns with the meaning of an action and its result: winding – 1) “distribution of turns of something,” 2) “cone-shaped or cylindrical shape of a product acquired as a result of winding.” Wed. also the ambiguity of a number of other terms in textile production: overlap, recycling, breakage etc.

One of the sources of polysemy (transitioning into homonymy) in terminology there may be a development of terminological meanings for ordinary words, for example: nose meaning "the front of the ship", face in the meaning of "grammatical category of a verb".

The rule of no synonyms is violated even more often, cf.: console– prefix, spelling– spelling, punch card– punched card, efficiency– Efficiency and under. The usual factors of synonymy are at work here: the coexistence of a Russian term with a foreign one, the replacement of a long term with a shorter one. And such synonymy is overcome by the same methods that exist in general in the vocabulary of the language, with the exception of stylistic demarcation.

The polysemy of terms, as well as their synonymy (cf. in linguistics, or linguistics: monosemy – unambiguity etc.), as well as homonymy (cf.: reaction – chem., reaction 2 – general-political, or homonymy of term element aero in words air thermometer, Where aero- “air”, and dope, Where aero 2 – truncated form from airplane, i.e. airplane varnishes) and antonymy (cf.: polysemy – monosemy, perfect form – imperfect species) are usually noted among the shortcomings of many modern terminologies.

4. The question of the motivation of the term deserves special consideration. As is known, the motivational feature (even if it exists) does not play a significant role in the functioning of commonly used words. What about the terms? Is the quality of motivation necessary and useful for terms that are fundamentally oriented primarily towards communication with extra-linguistic objects? It is difficult to give a definite answer here. On the one hand, the meaning of a term should be determined by a scientific definition and not depend on the semantics of the means that are used to form it. This is fully met by foreign language terms, conventional terms like Newton binomial, Bohr assumption, black box(in cybernetics) or noise(in information theory), as well as abbreviation terms like ASU, AI K, Uran-235. On the other hand, in any terminological system we encounter derivative words that are connected by motivational relations both within this system and outside it, for example: syllable– syllabic principle, sign– iconic, variant– invariant, phrase– phraseology etc. Most of Russian terminology is motivated, which in principle, apparently, is not contraindicated for it. The only undesirable thing is the desire to exaggerate the significance of the motivational feature when determining the content of the term. For example, the internal form of the term atom– “indivisible”, this feature is absolutely incompatible with the modern understanding of the structure of the atom. Another example: it would be unlawful within the framework of modern case theory to define the term case, associate it with the meaning of the verb fall, although etymologically there is such a connection.

Some researchers (for example, N. Z. Kotelova) speak out more categorically on this matter: “In a general explanatory dictionary, a word-term should be described only as a word, an element of the language system. Nothing linguistic is alien to terms. They are characterized (and even close as a method of measurement) by antonymy, synonymy (the most common difference between synonyms as words of equivalent meaning is their difference in the method of nomination, in particular the presence or absence of terminating the designation), polysemy. Forgetting the polysemy of a term often leads to difficult situations in science, cf., for example, the inconsistency of statements in scientific works and teaching aids about the ideality or materiality of consciousness, resulting from the uncontrolled use of the term consciousness in different (4–5) meanings. The linguistic properties of lexical meanings are inherent in concrete and terminological vocabulary, as well as in abstract and non-terminological ones.”

Despite the specified specificity, terms, being still elements of the lexical system of the Russian language, are basically subject to its laws. Thus, the methods for forming neologisms-terms are the same as for ordinary words, for example: computer memory(semantic way), Control block(compound name), sanding(suffixal method), hydropower(word formation). At the same time, within the framework of these general methods, features characteristic specifically of terminology appear.

Terms are formed in different ways. Along with the process of creating new names, there is a terminology of words already existing in the language, i.e., their rethinking (transfer of names), as a result of which secondary, special terminological nominations arise.

To create new terms, the following methods are used:

a) actually lexical, i.e. formation of words and phrases of primordial (shoemaker - railway, hole - physical, charger - physical, off scale, maternal substance – physical, etc.); various types of borrowings (algorithm, bathyscaphe, cybernetics, laser, maser, scanner And scanner – honey.); mixing of both (daughter atoms, light isotopes - physical, liquid shock absorber, neutron generation, force field – physical);

b) lexical-word-formative, i.e. – creation of terms using existing Russian or borrowed word-forming elements, morphemes according to existing models in the language. The most productive among them are addition and affixation. Yes, they apply different types addition of stems and words. Addition of complete basics: cotyledons, oxygen-containing, nuclear-powered icebreaker, smoke eliminator, lunar rover, oil pipeline, current rotator etc.; addition of truncated stems (compound abbreviated words): pressure apparatus, space navigation, hardware(metal products); state committee, trade union committee; use of foreign language elements; air, auto, aero, bio, video, zoo, geo, hydro, hyper, inter, iso, macro, micro, pan, para, radio, television , ultra-, electro- and etc.: aeronomy, biophysics, hydrometeorological service, zooplankton, isotherm, radio telescope, ultraacoustics, electrocoagulation and etc.; abbreviation: AMC(automatic interplanetary station), Power lines(power line), MN(magnetic saturation), NOT(scientific organization of labor), UHF(high frequency ultraviolet rays); computer(electronic computer); mixed method, i.e. combination of complex partially dismembered names and various word-forming elements: hydrosand-jet perforation, hydroponic greenhouses, radio-electronic industry.

Terms formed by addition can be indivisible lexicalized units (cosmology, biocybernetics, crank etc.), but can also represent units of incomplete lexicalization, i.e. those that are not one indivisible lexeme (vector function, press shears, donor atom, vacuum shield, alpha particle), as evidenced by the hyphenated spelling of words.

Different types of term formation using the method of affixation are also very productive (prefix, prefix-suffix, mixed word formation): vortex, grounding, transparency(property and quantity characterizing the property), reduction, adder, dielectric, milling(And milling), fluoridate, headset, nuclear scientist (nuclear specialist) etc.

No less productive is lexicon-semantic method of replenishing terminological vocabulary, i.e., the creation of a term in the process of scientific (or technical) rethinking of well-known words. This process goes in two ways: 1) through a complete rethinking of the existing word and the subsequent separation of the newly created unit from the source word. This is how, for example, one of the terminological meanings of the word arose elementary in combination elementary particle, i.e. “basic, complex, fundamental particle” (cf. one of the commonly used meanings of the word elementary –“simplest, uncomplicated”); Wed also the terminological meaning of the word slow in a phrase slow processes - this is what physics calls processes that occur in one millionth of a second, etc.; 2) by using name transfers taking into account emerging associations. This is how the terminological meanings of words arose snow (special) –“a special type of image”; hole (special) –"defect electron"; neck (special) –“intermediate part of the machine shaft”, etc. When words with diminutive suffixes are terminized, their inherent evaluative, expressive-emotional properties are lost, for example: head(for bolts and rivets), tail(for tools, devices), paw(part of the frame of machines, near instruments), etc. This method allows, in some cases, to create terminological names with elements of expression in semantics: wormy image, dead time, alien atom.

A significant role in replenishing terminological systems is played by foreign language borrowings. International scientific, technical, economic, cultural, historical, socio-political terms of Latin and Greek origin have long been known in the language: acclimatization, agglutination, binary; humanity, dictatorship, internationalism, literature and other words from Latin; agronomy, dynamics, grammar, space, dramaturgy, democracy and other words from Greek. Many terms come from other languages.

In terminology, more often than in ordinary words, you can indicate the person who created (or proposed) a particular term. For example, the term biosphere introduced by V.I. Vernadsky, the 104th element of the Periodic Table was named Kurchatoviy G. A. Flerov, term spaceship was proposed by S.P. Korolev. It is in terminology that the percentage of foreign words (especially international ones) far exceeds the corresponding indicators in the field of common vocabulary. It is in it that standard international elements of composition, genetically related to the Greco-Latin tradition, are used with maximum activity. (air, video, hydro, meteo etc.; -graph, -drome, -meter, -teka etc.). Only in terminology do we encounter such designations, which include the symbolism of other sciences, for example a-particles, y-radiation, BN-350(fast neutrons).

In addition to the actual terms and terminological combinations, science widely uses abbreviations and abbreviations, For example IR spectrum(infrared spectrum), IPS(information retrieval system), Efficiency(efficiency), PC(punched card), PMT(photoelectronic multiplier), EMU(electronic simulator); symbolic and formulaic designations of concepts (in particular, chemical elements): N – hydrogen, O – oxygen, N 2 ABOUT - formula of water, etc.

It is impossible to clearly contrast terminology with commonly used non-terminological vocabulary. Between them lies a wide band in which terms exist as if in constant oscillation between ideal requirements (unambiguity, neutrality, absence of synonyms) and the real laws of a living and dynamic lexical system.

It is in this “transitional” zone that active interaction between terms and non-terms takes place, because real people in their specific speech activity use them in the same row. As a result of such interactions, systematic transitions of vocabulary from one sphere to another are carried out: terms into the sphere of general vocabulary (determinologization) and vice versa - replenishment of terms at the expense of the resources of general vocabulary (terminologization).

The most general and strong trend is the expansion of the boundaries of the use of terminological vocabulary, the expansion of terms beyond narrow specialized areas, followed by possible rethinking and inclusion in common vocabulary. The general prerequisites for such processes are: universal education, expansion of the spheres of mass communication, increasing the role of science in all spheres of public life, characteristic of the era of scientific and technological revolution - all this creates especially favorable conditions for active processes of interaction of terminological vocabulary with the national (commonly used) part of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. These processes are especially clearly visible in periodicals, especially on the newspaper page. Based on the language of newspapers, one can identify the main stages of this process.

The first stage is a general expansion of the use of terms both in regular correspondence and in special promotional materials. Wed. at least newspaper headlines: The converter straightens his shoulders; Hydroponics at a new stage; Agronomist on the spring field: Houses from the assembly line; Stolen sovereignty; Design– not cosmetics etc. In the note “From Neptune’s Pantry” (Pravda. 1986. April 27), dedicated to the algae museum, along with fairly well-known terms like iodine, vitamins, microelements highly technical terms used: kelp, fifeltsia, fucus, agar, mannitol, sodium alginite. In correspondence “Dead living water"(Ural Worker. 1986. April 25), reporting the clogging of the Nizhny Tagil pond, in addition to fairly well-known terms like rental, discharge, water intake, treatment facilities More special ones are also used: suspended matter, clarification pond, sludge, looped circulation, bottom sediments. Readers understand the meaning of such highly specialized terms approximately, relying on the “hint” of the context or internal form. Often, however, the authors themselves provide an explanation of the term, for example: Lysis of bacteria – Scientists call this word the dissolution of microorganisms - has long been known in science(Science and life).

The second stage of mastering the term is already associated with its rethinking. The term is used in an unusual context in an unusual, figurative meaning, for example: tournament orbit; sowing starts; testing ground for entrepreneurship; financial vampires; red tape virus; success algorithm; irresponsibility - plankton scammers; common man - it is nitrogen in the state atmosphere, performing its neutral functions; This - neutrino in a state atom. In all the examples given, the terms act as expressive speech means.

The third stage is the complete determinologization of the word , when the term loses both its special meaning and its expressiveness, it becomes one of the derived meanings that are predominantly neutral in nature. For example, the word contact in addition to special terminological meanings (technical; geological), there is a neutral, commonly used meaning “mutual communication; mutual understanding, coordination in work”; at the word reaction in addition to biological, chemical and physical terminological meanings, there are commonly used meanings of “a state that occurs in response to some influence” and “a sharp change in well-being, having the character of a transition from tension to weakness.”

Reverse movement from the sphere of general vocabulary to terminology carried out in two types of phenomena, which we have already touched upon above. Firstly, this is the development of secondary terminological meanings for ordinary words, for example: the meaning of “interference in the communication channel” in the word noise as a computer science term; meaning “decrease in metal strength under the influence of variable loads” in the word fatigue as a technical term. Secondly, the occurrence of ordinary words in compound terms like subaquatic bath, stepless motion, soft landing, red book, REM sleep and so on.

Narrowly professional words are usually not widely used in literary languages, i.e., the scope of their use remains limited. Most often this is Speaking representatives of one profession or another. However, the so-called terminology of professional words and expressions often occurs. In this case, they become the only officially legalized name (see, for example, the examples of textile production terms given above).

At the same time, the spread of scientific and technical terminology and professional vocabulary itself, their intensive penetration into various spheres of life leads to the fact that in the language, along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, there is also a reverse process - the mastery of terms in the literary language, i.e. their determinologization. The frequent use of philosophical, art, literary, medical, physical, chemical, production and technical and many other terms and terminological phrases has made them commonly used lexical units: argument, concept, consciousness; drama, concert, contact, contour, tension, romance, style, resonance; analysis, incandescence, synthesis, soldering etc., as well as inclined plane, freezing point, boiling point, fulcrum, center of gravity etc. Many of these words and phrases in general literary use have a different, often figurative-metaphorical, lexical or phraseological meaning; compare: catalyst(special) – “a substance that accelerates, slows down or changes the course of a chemical reaction” and catalyst(translated) – “stimulant of something”; contact(special) – “contact of electrical wires” and contact(translated) – “communication, interaction”; “coherence in work”; inclined plane(translated) – “shaky, unstable life position”, etc.

Traditionally, the function of a term is understood as the role played by the term, being a means of denoting a special concept. The term, fulfilling its function, functions in several areas: in the lexical-semantic system of a certain language; in the terminological system of a certain branch of knowledge and (or) activity; in the theory of this industry. In all these areas, the functions of the term are different, but interconnected. Therefore, they talk about the system of its functions, the polyfunctionality of the term and the interconnection of all its functions.

The term, like any lexical unit, performs nominative function. In the process of cognition of objective reality and joint activity, people name in one way or another objects, their characteristics, operations carried out with these objects.

The specificity of the term as a unit of nomination in this regard is that with the help of terms they name (nominate) concepts, categories, signs (properties) of concepts, as well as operations (relations) in various special areas of human knowledge (science, production, social life and etc.). In other words, the nominative nature of a term lies in the fixation of special knowledge in it. Of course, without such a name, knowledge and activity in special areas are impossible.

The nominative function is closely related to significative function, otherwise called the notation function, sign function ( from lat. signifiko - I give a sign, signal, from signum - sign, signal and facio - I do). When considering this function, we study methods of designation, types of linguistic signs according to their motivation (unmotivation), the relationship of signs to types of objects (for example, whether a linguistic sign denotes a separate object or a class of objects).

Third function - communicative – characterizes the term as a means of transmitting to the recipient some meaningful and situation-appropriate information with the establishment of feedback. In this case, the term serves as a means of transfer (communication) of special knowledge in space and time.

There are two types of implementation of this function: knowledge exchange and training.

During the exchange of knowledge between representatives of specialized fields of knowledge, adequate understanding largely depends on the accuracy of the terms. however, in the process of communication, adjustments and clarification of information often occur, for example, in the process of discussing a hypothesis. Often a new term is born precisely in the course of communication.

The situation is different with the transfer of special knowledge in the learning process. In this case, standardized or repeatedly ordered terms are used. Thus, in scientific communication and teaching, the communicative function is implemented in different ways.

When transferring special knowledge over time, the communicative function manifests itself quite specifically. Firstly, the perception of knowledge in terms by new generations occurs without verification by means of feedback. Secondly, the growth of scientific knowledge leads to a different understanding of objects designated by certain terms, which means that “old” terms can receive new content through their revolutionary development.

Pragmatic the function is determined by the connection of the sign with the participants of communication, specific conditions and sphere of communication. This function is explicitly manifested in the ideological struggle in political terms, in discussions, etc. V.M. Leichik talks about special case, when the term deliberately must carry misinformation, i.e. is falsely motivated ( for example, social partnership instead of hired labor). Sometimes the use of such terms is explained by an insufficient level of knowledge or an incorrectly chosen theory.

Being a lexical element of any language of science and technology, a term, along with other lexical units of these languages, can perform heuristic function, the function of discovering new knowledge. With the help of terms it is possible to name new open concepts. Therefore, we can say that terms are directly involved in scientific knowledge and contribute to the discovery of truth.