Escape and its views. Biology in a lyceum. Cellular structure stem

- This is a vegetative organ plant, as a rule, over the surface of the soil and on which the kidneys, leaves, flowers are located. Several thickened places of the stem, where the leaves are attached, are called nodes, and distances between the nodes - interstices.

Side kidneyssitting at the base of the leaves are called stuffed. Shoots on the peculiarities of their growth and position in space may be low- or severe, reprehensive, fluttering, creeping, born, curly. The creeping shoots, in contrast to the sharpening, not only lie on the surface of the soil, but also rooted with the apparent roots formed from the stem nodes. Lazing plants, as a rule, have thin or erainy shoots, sometimes bentless at the ends (mustlemen), or various kinds of bars, suction cups, etc., which they cling to other non-residential objects.

According to the growth intensity of interstitial and their length, shoots are divided into extended and shortened. Elongated shoots are sometimes called Rostov, their main function is to master the living space. Cropped shoots can carry flowers or, like the socket forms of plants, form a group of leaves, pressed to the soil.

In the structure and life expectancy of the plants of the plants are grassy and rustic. Herbatous plants are represented by annuals, twilight and perennial herbs. Cutting plants form trees, shrubs, shrubs.

The branching of shoots is associated with the formation of side shoots from the stubble kidneys.

Sailing kidney: An example of a change in escape growth is to strengthen the development of lateral shoots as a result of removal of the top kidney.

Elegations can be modified. Many plants in the soil are formed underground shoots in which spare nutrients are neglected. These substances are necessary for the experience of unfavorable conditions. These are organs of vegetative reproduction.

Row - This is an underground escape, externally similar to the root. Rhizome carries the scratched leaves, in the sinuses of which are stubborn kidneys. Pressure roots are formed on the rhizer, and side buses of rhizomes and above-ground shoots are developing from the sinus kidneys. Rhizomes are found in perennial herbaceous plants (hat, fern, cereals, etc.). Live rhizomes from several to 15-20 years.

Tuber - It is a thickened underground escape. The tuber has stubble kidneys - eyes.

Bulb - Underground shortened modified escape. The bulb stem forms a don. Leaves, or scales are attached to the Don. Exterior scales are usually dry. They perform a protective function, cover the juicy scales, in which nutrients and water are laid. At the bottom there is a top kidney, which develops overhead leaves and a color-based arrow. At the bottom of the Donets develop additive roots. The bulbs are characteristic of perennial plants (lilies, tulips, bows, garlic, etc.).

Counters - These are underground shoots, at the end of which tubers, bulbs develop, socket shoots. Stone lives only one year.

Shines (wild apple tree, wild pear) are also treated with escape modifications (Wild apple tree), antennae (pumpkin, grapes), a vacuum (bounds, a luggage), overhead collines (mustache) - strawberries, cacti stems.

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Embry of either from the stubborn or apparent (adventtive) kidney. Thus, the kidney is escaped. In the germination of the seed from the germinal kings, the first escape of the plant is formed - its main escape, or escape of first order.

From the main escape form side shoots, or second order shoots, and when repetition of branching - third order, etc.

Applying shoots Formed from the apparent kidneys.

This is how the system of shoots is formed, presented by the main escape and side shoots of the second and subsequent orders. The shootout system increases the total area of \u200b\u200bcontact with the air environment.

Depending on the function being performed, the elevations of vegetative, vegetative and generative and generative are distinguished. Vegetative (invisible) shoots consisting of a stem, leaves and kidneys and vegetative-generative (partially modified), consisting additionally from a flower or inflorescences, perform aircraft functions and provide synthesis of organic and inorganic substances. In the generative (fully modified) shoots of photosynthesis, it does not occur most often, but there are processed sporangies, the task of which is reduced to ensuring the reproduction of the plant (there are flower to such shoots).

Escape on which flowers are formed, called flower escape, or coloros (Sometimes the term "floweros" is understood in a narrower sense - as a plot of a stem on which flowers are located).

The main bodies escape

Vegetative unbearable Escape is a single plant organ, consisting of a stem, leaves and kidneys, which is generated from the general massif of the meristem (escape cone) and possessing a single conductive system. Stems and leaves that are the main structural elements of escape - are often considered as its composite bodies, that is, the second order bodies. In addition, the obligatory affiliation of escape is the kidney. The main appearance, distinguishing the escape from the root - the presence of leaves.

Monopodial branching

Monopodial branching is the next stage of the evolution of the branching of shoots. In plants with the monopodial type of building, the tossekoy kidney is maintained throughout the life of escape. Monopodial type branching is often found among vote plants, also occurs in many coated bridges (for example, in many species of palm trees, as well as plants from the orchid family - gastroinoshilus, phalaenopsis and others). Some of them have the only vegetative escape (for example, Phalaenopsis is pleasant).

Monopodial plants - The term most frequently used in the description of plants of tropical and subtropical flora, as well as in popular science literature on room and greenhouse flower growing.

Monopodial plants can differ significantly externally. Among them there are sockets, with elongated escape, bush.

Sympodial branching

In plants with a symphodial type of building of the escape kidney, finishing the development dies or gives the beginning of the generative browse. After flowering, this escape is no longer growing, and a new one begins to develop a new one. The structure of escapes in plants with a symphodial type of branching is more difficult than in plants with; Sympodial branching is an evolutionary more advanced type of branch. The word "sympoidal" is formed from Greek. SYM ("Together" or "Many") and POD ("Leg").

Sympodial branching is typical for many coated plants: for example, for Lip, Yves and many orchid.

In the orchid, in addition to the top, the side of sympodial orchids are formed and side inflorescences are formed, developing from the kidneys located at the base of escape (Grebena Pafin). Part of the escape, pressed against the substrate, is called the rhizome. It is usually horizontally and does not have real leaves, only the scratched. Reduced, almost indistinguishable risoma sometimes happens to many molding, dendrobiums and oncidiums; Well distinguishable and thickened - at Cattles and Lelia, elongated - in Bulbophilleumov and Zhaichin, reaching 10 or more centimeters. The vertical part of escape is often a thickened forming the so-called tuberidium, or pseudobulb. Pseudobulb can be of different shapes - from almost spherical to cylindrical, cone-shaped, male and elongated, reed stalks. Pseudobulbs are in stockborne bodies.

Sympodial plants - The term most commonly used in the description of plants of tropical and subtropical flora, as well as in popular science literature on room and greenhouse flower growing.

Bulbophyllum Grandiflorum

Cirrhopetalum Macraei.

Oncidium dasystyle. Curtis "S Botanical Magazine Vol. 127 Ser. 3 Nr. 57 Tab. 7787, 1901

Dendrobium Senile.. Curtis "S Botanical Magazine Vol. 127 Ser. 3 Nr. 57 Tab. 7787, 1901

Evolution of branch types

Seagility modifications (metamorphosis)

Escape is the most volatile plant on the appearance of the plant. This is due not only to the total multifunctionality of the vegetative organs arising in the process of evolution, but also with changes occurring in the process of ontogenesis of plants caused by adaptation to the diversity of environmental conditions, and cultural plants are under the influence of man.

It is formed rhizome or originally like an underground organ (boning, worsion eyes, lily of the village, blueberries), or first as an overhead assimilating escape, which is then immersed in the soil with the help of retractive roots (strawberries, median, cuff). Rhizomes can grow and branch up monopodial (cuff, woroni eye) or sympodial (boning, median). Depending on the length of the interstitial and increasing intensity, distinguish long and short rhizomes and, accordingly, long-hall and shortocornias plants.

When branching rhizomes is formed kurtin Overhead shoots associated with areas of the root system. If the binders are destroyed, shoots are isolated, and vegetative reproduction occurs. The combination of new individuals formed vegetatively called clone. The rhizomes are characteristic mainly for grassy perennials, but are also found in shrubs (bearing) and shrub (lingonberry, blueberry).

Close to rhizomes underground collines- short-lived thin underground shoots carrying underdeveloped scaled leaves. Stalls serve for vegetative reproduction, resettlement and seizure of the territory. Spare nutrients in them are not postponed.

Some plants (potatoes, an earthen pear) by the end of summer from the tops of the stewards are formed tubers (Fig. 4.24). The tuber has a spherical or oval shape, the stem is strongly thickened, spare nutrients are postponed in it, the leaves are reduced, kidneys are formed in their sinuses. Stokers die and destroyed, the tubers are overwhelmed, and the next year they began to start a new above-ground shoots.

Tubers do not always develop on the columns. In some perennial plants, the base of the main escape (Cyclamen, Kolabrabbstan Kohlrabi) (Cyclamen fig. 4.24.). The functions of the tuber - the supply of nutrients, the experience of an unfavorable period of the year, vegetative renewal and reproduction.

Perennial herbs and semi-shops with a well-developed rod root that remains throughout the life is formed a peculiar body of religious origin, called caudEx. Together with the root, it serves as a place of deposit of spares and carries a lot of renewal kidney, some of which can be sleeping. CaudEx is usually underground and is formed from short bases of shoots that are immersed in the soil. From the short rhizomes of CaudEx is distinguished by the die in the way. Rhizomes, increasing the top, gradually die and destroy on the older end; The main root is not saved. Caudex grows into width, from the bottom end it gradually goes into a long-lived thickening root. The death and destruction of coux and the root goes from the center to the periphery. A cavity is formed in the center, and then it can be divided longitudinally into separate sections - partikula. The process of separation of individuals of a rod-cornery plant with cakex on the part is called particulation. Caudek plants are a lot among legumes (lupine, alfalfa), umbrella (female, ferul), complex (dandelion, wormwood).

Bulb - This is usually an underground escape with a very short flattened stem - donets and scaly-shaped fleshy juicy leaves, sparkling water and soluble nutrients, mainly sugar. From the top and stubborn kidneys, the bulbs grow overhead shoots, appendant roots are formed on the bottom ( fig. 4.24.). Thus, the bulb is a typical organ of vegetative renewal and reproduction. The bulbs are most characteristic of plants from the family of lily (lilies, tulips), onion (bows) and amarylline (daffodils, hyacinths).

On the structure of the bulbs are very diverse. In some cases, splashing scales of bulbs are only modified leaves that do not have green plates (Lilia Saranka); In others, it is an underground vagina of green assimilating leaves, which thicken and remain in the composition of the bulbs after moving the plates (onions onion). The rise of the axis of the bulb can be a monopodial (snowdrop) or sympodial (hyacinth). Outdoor scales of the bulbs spend the supply of nutrients, dry and play a protective role. The number of bulbous scales varies from one (garlic) to several hundred (lily).

As a renewal body, the bulb is mainly adapted to the Mediterranean Type climates - with a sufficiently soft wet winter and with a very hot arid summer. It serves not so much for prosperous overwhelming, how much to experience a tough summer drought. Water stock in tissues of bulbous scales occurs due to the formation of mucus capable of retaining a large amount of water.

Corm Externally resembles a bulb, but its scratched leaves are not in stockpit; They are dry and film, and spare substances are deposited in a thickened stem part (saffron, gladiolus).

Fig. 4.24. Underground metamorphosis escape : 1, 2, 3, 4 - sequence of development and structure of potato tuber; 5 - Cyclamen's tube; 6 - Kohlrabi Tuber; 7 - Lily Tiger Lilies; 8 - onion of the onion onion of the bay; 9 - lily bulb; 10 - Plot of a long root of pottery crawling.

Not only underground, but also the above-ground shoots of plants can be modified ( fig. 4.25). Quite often found above middleware. These are plagiotropic short-lived shoots, the function of which is vegetative reproduction, resettlement and seizure of the territory. If the collises carry green leaves and participate in the process of photosynthesis, they are called pletia (Kostyannik, luggage creeping). Strawberry staff are devoid of developed green leaves, they have thin and fragile stems, with very long interstices. Such more highly specialized for the function of vegetative reproduction of collishes are called usami.

Juicy, fleshy, adapted for the accumulation of water can be not only bulbs, but also overhead shoots, usually in plants living in conditions of lack of moisture. Water or stems can be water or stems, sometimes even kidneys. Such juicy plants are called sukkulentov. Sheet succulents span water in the leaf tissues (Aloe, Agave, Tolstyanka, Rhodiola, or Golden Root). Stem succulents are characteristic of the American family of cactus and African Rochetia. Juicy stem performs a water-saving and assimilant function; Leaves are reduced or turned into spines ( fig. 4.25, 1). Most cacti stem column or spherical, the leaves are not at all formed at all, but the nodes are well noticeable by the location of the stuffing shoots - aREOL.having a type of warts or elongated grows with spines or bunches of hairs. The conversion of leaves in the spiny reduces the evaporation surface of the plant and protects from eating animals. An example of kidney metamorphosis in a succulent organ - kochan serves cultural cabbage.

Fig. 4.25. Overhead escape metamorphosis: 1 - Stem succulent (cactus); 2 - grapes; 3 - a leafless photosynthesizing Escape of the Cross; 4 - Filocladium Igles; 5 - Spiky Glootichia.

Spinys Cacti have sheets. Leaf spines are often found at non-bankrupt plants (barberries) ( fig. 4.26, 1). Many plants have non-leaf spines, but stem origin. At the wild apple tree, wild pear, the hemorphic spiny whoster in the prickly, having limited growth and ending the edges. The view of the tough weighing spiny they acquire after the leaves of the leaves. Have a hawthorn ( fig. 4.26, 3) The spines formed in the sinuses of the leaves are completely light off from the very beginning. Glootichia ( fig. 4.25, 5.) Powerful branched spines are formed on siblings from sleeping kidney. The formation of spines of any origin, as a rule, is the result of a lack of moisture. When growing many spiny plants in an artificial wet atmosphere, they lose spines: normal leaves (barbing camel) are growing, or wild shoots (English Dark).

Fig. 4.26. Spines of various origin : 1 - barberry leaf straps; 2 - spines of white acacia, modification of horses; 3 - spines of the hawthorn of shooting origin; 4 - spikes - Emergeni Rosehip.

Soots of a row of plants carry spikes. The spikes differ from the barns of smaller sizes, these are growing - Emergens - cover fabric and tissue of the stem cortex (rosehip, gooseberry) ( fig. 4.26, 4.).

The adaptation to the lack of moisture is very often expressed in early loss, metamorphosis or reduction of leaves losing the main function of photosynthesis. This is compensated by the fact that the role of the assimilant authority takes on the stem. Sometimes such an assimilant stem of alertless escape remains externally unchanged (Spanish Damble, Camel Kolyuk) ( fig. 4.25, 3). Further step in the specified change of functions is the formation of such organs as fillocladium and layout. These are flattened sheet-like stems or escapes. On the shoots of the needle ( fig. 4.25, 4.), in the sinuses of scratchy leaves, flat sheets of Filloclands are developing, having, like a sheet, limited growth. Czechoidal leaves and inflorescences are formed on Fillocladia, which never happens on normal leaves, it means that Fillocladium corresponds to a whole stubborn run. Small, needle filoclades are formed in asparagus in the sinuses of the scratched leaves of the main skeletal escape. Pondodia is flattened stems that preserve, unlike philocladium, the ability to long-term growth.

For some plants, the modification of leaves or their parts is characterized, and sometimes whole shoots in mustachewhich are spinning around the support, helping a thin and weak stalk save a vertical position. Many legumes in the mustache turns the upper part of the peristry loss (peas, peas, rank). In other cases, strips (SASSAPARIAL) are transformed into the mustache. Very characteristic alerts of sheet origin are formed in pumpkin, and you can see all transitions from normal leaves to fully metamorphic. A mustache of shooting origin can be observed at grapes ( fig. 4.25, 2), Passiflora and a number of other plants.

The above-ground part of the plants is called the term "escape". The structure is due to the functions performed. Of course, each body is indispensable and determines the possibility of the existence of a biological species. Functions of power, growth processes, the possibility of adaptation is just some of the most important functions of the visible part of plant organisms.

Biology: Escape Structure

Morphology distinguish the axial and side part of this organ: stem and leaf. The structure affects its variety: from microscopic water ripple to the giant forest sequoia. It is due to the various structure of the component parts of the aboveground part associated with the characteristics of the habitat and climatic conditions. Here are also shortened incharpasses - kidneys.

The location of the leaf attachment to the axial part is called the node, and the angle that is formed between them is the sinus. Here are specialized kidneys forming leaves or flowers. The distance between two places of fastening of the leaves is called interstitial.

Stem

The escape structure initially depends on the direction of growth and location in the stem space. Depending on these features, it distinguishes the reply, sharpening, creeping, curly and clinging species. A varied stems and surface character. It can be bare or with growing, smooth or rough. If you cut the stalk across, you can determine the form: round, ribbed, with a certain amount of faces or fighter.

The mustache strawberries are also its escape having shortened interstices.

Depending on the life form, herbaceous and rustic stems are distinguished. The first do not have Cambia - the side in the first years of life externally on them are similar to new shoots of trees and shrubs. They are green and capable of photosynthesis. Over time, they are decorated, becoming more durable. They are able to retain large fruits and resist the strong gusts of the wind.

Types of stems

Depending on the characteristics of the plant development cycle, one can be single, two and perennial. For example, Astra is flowing in autumn, after which they completely die away. Differently develops carrots and beets. In the first year of life, they form roots, which are organs, sparkling nutrients. In the fall, their stem dies. But the plant exists in the form of a modified stem. With the onset of favorable conditions, the escape grows again. At the same time, for the second year of life, seeds are formed on it as a result of flowering, with which the plant breeds.

Life cycle of perennial plants Consider by studying the peculiarities of the structure of coniferous plants. These are shrubs or trees that have a single powerful stem. His development begins with seed germination. As a result of its growth, the seedlings are formed, and after an adult plant. Ends the life cycle of perennial plants in death. Conifers are rightfully considered real long-livers. So, pine lives about 400 years, spruce - up to 500, and juniper - whole 1000!

Sheet

The side part of the escape is no less functional and diverse. It provides airfall, transpiration - evaporation of water from the surface, vegetative reproduction. Escape, the structure of which is determined by the functions performed, is characterized by a variety of leaves.

Cactus needles are needed to reduce the amount of evaporated moisture. And the palpal wide of the horse chestnut, on the contrary, increase its number.

The leaves with one plate are called simple, and with several, located on one cut, are complex. Considering them, you can see a certain drawing. It is created by veins. These are vascular fibrous beams by the nature of the housing, the leaves with mesh (maple, apple tree), parallel (corn, rye) and arc (plantain, lily of the valley) housing.

Late position

Escape, the structure of which depends on the amount of solar energy obtained, is characterized by a different location of the leaves on the stem. In the case of their arrangement, the spiral is formed next, and if the circle is opposite, or mutual.

In nature, there are no plants that do not update the foliage. It drops pine and spruce. Since not all leaves are falling right away, no one notices.

Weight modifications

If you have the need to perform additional functions, shoots and their components are modified. Leaves can turn into spines or scales. In plant predators, they are able to capture and digest small insects.

Topinambura tubers, which are also called an earthen pear, also form the modification of the escape - the tuber. On a thickened fleshy, the stem is batch kidneys, of which young shoots grow.

Underground stems with elongated interstices are rhizomes. They look like a vacuum, have well-developed mechanical and conductive fabrics. From kidneys located on rhizome, leaves are formed. Those who are not familiar with the characteristics of the root structure, believe that if you get rid of the leaves, all the plant will die. But this opinion is erroneous, because the main part of the plant is reliably protected and is underground.

The relationship of building and functions

The escape structure depends on the functions performed. This can be proved by considering the elements of the structure of its parts. The leaf outside is covered with a living cloth with a skin, in which there are holes - the dust. They are needed to protect and gas exchange. The internal contents of the sheet is represented by the main polar and chlorophyllon cloth, which is responsible for the autotrophic nutrition of the entire plant. The elements conductive and forming veins are the basis for transporting the entire gamma of the necessary nutrients.

Are the root (its underground part) and escape. The structure of generative parts does not allow them to perform similar functions. They carry out the process of sexual reproduction and spread of plants. But the flower develops precisely on the stem, and for its development, organic substances formed in the leaves are necessary.

It can be concluded that the plant is a single organism, the functioning of parts of which is interconnected.

Deploying escape from the kidney and its development.In the life of escape distinguish 2 stages. The period of the formation of escape as the infancy is called inoperateor embryonal. When the kidney is deployed, the embryonic period in the life of the escape is replaced outpertureor posthamsbrionalperiod. With the onset of spring, the kidneys will be treated in growth and grow new shoots (stems with leaves and kidneys). To blame the process of deploying escape, you can still before the onset of spring, putting the branches of trees or shrubs in the water (especially in the second half of winter). The deployment of escape begins with swelling of the kidney, renal scales are moving out, the rigids of green leaves are increased in size. Shortly after the germination of kidney, kidney scales fall, and the remaining scars from the fallen scales form a renal ring on the escape. For long-lasting renal scars, you can establish the age of the tree or shrub branches. At the same time, there is an extension of intercosals due to actively dividing cells inserting meristem. During this period, there is an intensive growth of leafy plates with a morphologically the upper side, and the sheet is rejected from the stem. Thanks to inserting growth between the base of the sheet and the plate, pets are formed. The laying of lateral shoots occurs both inside the maternal kidney and in the period of out-of-seeking escape.

The concept of annual and elementary shoots.Year oldescape - Escape, the growth and formation of which in the extra-speaking period of life ends for one year. In a seasonal climate, this happens in one growing season. The growth intensity and development of individual metamers is different. Often, the foundation of escape is the incidence of short and nodes are brought closer, higher by run, they become longer, and on the top there is a decrease in the length of intersals (the maximum dimensions of intersals, leaves, kidneys correspond to median meta-rooms). Development elementaryescape occurs on a similers curve for one growth push, or one period of visible growth. Often, oak in the study of a one-year escape can be noted that it was formed as a result of two periods of growth. Thus, it should be said that a one-year escape consists of two elementary shoots. There are no scratched leaves between two elementary shoots, that is, the renal ring is not formed. In the plants of the unsuconious climate, annual shoots consist, as a rule, from several elementary shoots.

Morphological types of shoots.The shoots vary:

1. By the length of intersals.Elongated- Escape, which is clearly expressed by interstices and nodes are far from each other. Shortening- shoots that have nodes are brought closer, and there are practically not pronounced intercoulations or absent (plantain). At the same plants, along with elongated shoots, both shortened (apple tree, birch, extra pouring) can develop. Usually shortened shoots are characterized by a small one-year increase.

Some plants (pine, plane) are a year-old shoots usually more than 10 cm lengths, but have connoissed interstices. Such shoots better call long(Fig. 6). Shortened shoots of herbaceous plants call otset(Primula, dandelion, plantain). Polurrowythe shoots (luggage Creeping, Nyurica, Vasilek Meadow, Persicol Collector) are characterized by pinned nodes in the basal part of the escape and elongated - in its middle part. In the field of inflorescence, the nodes can be both extended (the bell is sprawling) and the closest (the bell is crowded). The shepherd bags of ordinary, radish wild and others as the flower reveals the nodes are elongated in inflorescences.

2. By functions.Many plants have specialization of shoots. Wood plants elongated shoots often vegetative(Perform growth and trophic function), and shortened - generative. Elm, Bobulk, Wolf Lyk, there are completely lack of green leaves on generative shoots. Herbatous plants often have a reverse correlation. Shortened shoots are vegetative, and elongated - generative (valley, plantain).

3. The position of shoots in space. The shoots can be represented (or orthotropic), horizontal (or plagiotropic), lifting (or anisotropic), inclined, wrapped around the support, clinging behind the support (Fig. 4). A variety of positions of shoots of different plants in space allows to grow a greater number of species on a particular territory.

4. By the time of forming shoots from the kidneys.We have already considered (see the diversity of the kidneys) Features of the formation of enrichment shoots (Sillebutic), renewal shoots and water escapes.

Education system.The formation of the escape system is due to their branching and increasing. The branching of escape is the process leading to the formation of escape on the maternal escape, that is, on the shoot of one order, the shoots of the next order are formed.

There are two types of escape branching: 1) the top, 2) side. In the process of historical plant development, the nature of the branch changed. The top, or dichotomic branching characteristic of plane, some ferns and individual seed plants (some palm trees). Eliminate equalometomic (equilibrium) branching - the emerging shoots are the same and non-equodychotomic (non-equinable) - one escape turns out to be more powerful and is like a continuation of maternal escape.

Fig. 4. Types of shoots by location in space: 1) - orthotropic (Fisher's carnation); 2) - plagiotropic (coin velbeyn); 3) - anisotropic (plan); 4) - Curly (field Bind); 5) - clinging (mouse peas); 6) - oblique (birch)

For the overwhelming majority of seed plants, side branch is characterized. The beginning of a new run is the side kidneys. The formation of lateral shoots increases their total number. The overall surface of the aircraft organs increases, which is extremely important for plants leading the "attached" lifestyle.

Due to the top kidneys, escaping is increasing. For a number of years as a result of the activity of one meristem, the many years of the axis of one order are formed. This type of increment is called monopodial(Fig. 5). So the maple, spruce and others are growing. However, in a number of plants, the top measurement at a certain stage forms inflorestection and further monopodial growth becomes impossible.

In some species (birch, Iva, Lipa), the elimination of the top kidney occurs or even part of the escape. The increase in such plants comes from lateral kidneys. In the fall after the elimination of the top kidney and part of the escape, one of the lateral kidneys becomes the top of the top, but the presence of a scar from the deadly tip of the escape (a branch) indicates that this kidney is side. This type of increment is called sympoordial.

Thus, for seed plants, two methods of formation of perennial axes are characterized: 1) monopodial increases and side branching (maple, oak, ash), 2) sympodial increase and side branching (Berez, Iva, Lipa).

Fig. 5. Monopodial increase in perennial axes with lateral branching. Maple American Branch (2 years): a - the top kidney; b - stubborn kidney; in - sheet scar; G - renal ring

Chief and side shoots.The main escape is formed during the germination of seeds from the germinal kidney. From it, the System of Escapes begins to form (or in subsequent). From the top kidney there is an increase in the main escape, the escape of the first order. From lateral kidneys as a result of lateral branching, side shoots are formed, run second order. The side shoots of the second also grow and branched, forming third-order shoots, and so on.

Acotonia, mesotonia, Basitonia.These three options of branching are distinguished depending on the location of the most highly developed side shoots on the maternal. For acrotone(Greek acros - top, tone - power, power) branching the most powerful side shoots are formed at the top of the maternal escape, mesotonne(Greek Mesos - middle) - in the middle, and when basiton(Greek. Base - base) - in its foundation. A special occasion of the side branch is a bunning escape. At the same time, lateral shoots are formed from the kidneys located on the shortened part at the base of escape.

Formation of trunk and crowns in trees.Trees are characterized by the formation of a single barrel, usually in its upper part there is an intensive branching (acroton), which leads to the formation of the crown. The growing trunk can be both monopodial and sympodial. In the latter case, the trunk is formed as a result of the activity of lateral kidneys by origin. The top kidneys, and more often and a small upper part of the escape are poorly and quickly die away. The formation of the crown occurs at the expense of stubborn kidneys and is associated with different branch intensity. The angle of inclination of the side branches relative to the trunk also significantly affects the originality of the crown shape. Usually the first side branches are weaker and quickly die away. So, the formation of the full branches of the crown begins only from 6-8 years, and sometimes later. Often the crown shape directly depends on the plant growing conditions. Lonely standing trees have a significantly less developed trunk and more powerful crown. In the dense forest trees form a high trunk and a small crown on the top of the top.

Formation of shrubs.Shrubs form several trunks that replace each other as aging. The formation of new trolics occurs due to sleeping kidneys located at the base of the parent stem. They can be located and surface and underground. The growing trunk occurs for several years. Branching occurs due to the sneakers. The degree of branch is different in different species and is often dependent on phytocenosis. If the overall life of the shrub can reach several hundred years, the trunks live about 20-40 years. However, this value varies widely: from 2 - with raspberries up to 60 - Karagan.

Education system of shoots in herbs.Herbatous plants are characterized by a large variety of shooting systems that are formed as a result of lateral branching and monopodial or sympodial increases. Usually most of the one-year grains of herbs die into the year of formation. Perennial shooting systems are usually located in soil or tightly pressed. The highest value in the characteristic of the shooting systems of grassy plants is the type of growth and length of annual increase. Based on these signs allocated modeling modelsperennial herbs (long-shaped sympoomial - Veronica long-oil, dosage dosage; only sympoomy - bridal stripes, peacol-colored bell; the rosette monopodial is a large plantain, dandelion medicinal; long-distance monopodial - coin vermic, Veronica dosage).

The concept of monocarpical escape.Monocarpical (mono - one, carpos - fruit) escape flowers and fruits once. The concept of monocarpical escape is usually used to characterize grassy plants. The fate of monocarpic escape from different plants can be added differently:

1. Escape Running to flowering in the first year of its development is a monocyclic (multi-flower, european coil).

2. Escape, turning to blossom only for the second year of life - a dicyclic escape (a medpetial is unclear, strawberries Forest, buttercup Kashubsky).

3. If the escape moves to blossom only on the third or in subsequent years - the polycyclic escape (the rubber-hearted pear, sheep's oatman).

In addition to the above, there are shoots that never go to flowering. They got the name of shoots with an incomplete development cycle. The reasons for this may be different: 1) adverse conditions; 2) age state; 3) Specialization of shoots in one plant. The last group of plants include monopodial growing shoots from the plantain of a large, dandelion of the medicinal.

Late position- This is the order of the leaves on the stem (Fig. 6). Only one sheet, for example, in birch, oak, linden, buttercups take some plants from the node. Such a sheet is called the next. If the node is more than one sheet - mutual, its special case is the opposite, in which two sheets are located within the node, usually located against each other (contrary), like maple, elderly, viburnum, Veronica. A number of species (Voroniye eyes, anemone, Elodea, Juniper) from the node move three or more leaves. In all cases, leaves departing from two neighboring nodes are never located over the other, but only at an angle to each other. With such a leaf, the minimum shading of one sheet is achieved by another. Often, plants have an unequal expanding of the stiffs and plates and the placement of leaves in one plane, while it is formed as a solid green screen that perceives the falling rays of the sun. Such the location of the leaves in relation to the light source (often in conditions of shading) is called a sheet mosaic.

Fig. 6. Types of light position: A - next (linden); B - the opposite (coin velbeyn); In - mutual (ordinary truck)

Stem.Central, the axis part of escape is stem. The stem performs the reference, transport and stocking function. Green stems are also involved in plants air diet. Stem is a support for leaves, flowers, fruits, kidneys and developing side shoots. Over the conductive tissues of the stem from bottom to top and from top to bottom, water is transferred and nutrients dissolved in it. Spare substances are postponed in the tissues of the stem. Young green stems along with leaves are involved in the synthesis of organic substances from inorganic. In some plants, green leaves are absent (saksaul, cactus, asparagus, a needle and others), and the stem is the main aircraft organ.

Nodes and interstices are highlighted on the stem. The shape of the stem is usually determined by its transverse slice made at the intercoux level. In different plants, it is not the same, but constant for the form or even kind, family. This often has a taxonomic value. More often the stem is rounded with a smooth or ribbed edge. It can be a tetrahedral (nettle, sage), triangular (s), winged (Forest rank), etc. The stem is smooth or pubescent, which is determined by the presence of various hairs on the epidermis.

Sheetit is a side body of escape located on the stem. List functions: 1) photosynthesis, 2) transpiration, 3) gas exchange. In more detail with these concepts, you will learn aware of the physiology of plants.

The main parts of the sheet are plate, Puffs, Hiltsand base(Fig. 7). Their structure corresponds to the functions that the sheet performs, however, in different plants they are unequal in shape and sizes (Fig. 8). Plate is an extended, plate part of the sheet. It is this part of the sheet that performs the functions listed above. With a plate-form of the organ, its maximum surface is achieved, and as a result, high photosynthetic activity. Based on the plate goes into a stewed pet. Its main function is the placement of the sheet plate in the position that is most beneficial for the plant in space, as well as providing the leaf system, that is, preventing damage to the sheet at different blows. In turn, in turn, in the lower part goes into the base of the sheet, which is directly related to the stem. The base is a mandatory part of the sheet. In some plants (carrots, wheat) it grows and covers the stem above the node. This base is called vagina.

Fig. 7. Simple leaves: 1 - leaf plate; 2 - pets; 3 - base; 4 - Highlights; a - vagina; b - tongue; B - Skrug.

Highlights are grown on the base of the sheet. Their function is mainly associated with the protection of the sheet plate during the period of intravenous development. However, some plants are helpful to perform independent functions in adulthood. They can significantly grow as in pea and remind a record, while performing a photosynthetic function. In the yellow acacia, the gooseberry helps turn into barbs and serve as protectivecies. The sheet is called complete, if he has a plate, petiole, base, stristers. Full leaf in rowan, roses, oak, cherry. In the first two of these plants, all parts of the sheet are stored throughout life. In the oak, adult leaves do not have boosts, as they die down early by performing functions to protect the plates of the ridiculous kidney sheet. When deploying the kidneys and forming the escape of Hilts, oak, birch, lindens and a number of other plants are falling.

Fig. 8. Features of the morphology of the sheet: 1 - parts of the sheet: a - full sheet; b - a complex sheet with horses; V - Hightails have grown with a camp; r - ignore; D - false leaf position (for example, in the podmarnikov), E is the swollen vagina, and the tubular vagina (for example, cereals); 2 - Position of the sheet on the stem: a - long-meshy sheet, b - short-flower, in - sedentary, g - boning, d - stalking, e - pierced, g - threw out leaves; 3 - Form of the base plate: a - wedge-shaped, b - rounded, in - heart-shaped, g - cut, d - sweat, e is a spear, f - unequal, z - narrowed; 4 - The form of the top of the sheet: a - stupid, b - truncated, in - acute, g - pointed, d - pointed, e is the laid; 5 - Sheet edge shape: A - Obsolenial, b - gear, in - double-wave, g - fined, d - double, e is an unequal, g - З - З - заделый, and - wavy, to - seed

The sheet is called incomplete if it does not have, at least one of its parts: the petiole (seating leaf), stristers or a plate. Aloe sedentary leaf, peacious bell, Fisher's cloves. These plants also do not have alcohol. The latter does not have lilac, cabbage, potatoes. Rarely, but there may be no plate. Then its functions are performed by other parts: Hightress (non-protein), bleached petiole (in some acacia).

Fig. 9. Complex leaves: 1 - one-grade (lemon); 2 - three-grained (type name); 3 - fined (Kanchin Konsky); 4 - ParnPrests (rank meadow); 5 - nonpoperest (raspberry forest); a - base; b - Highlights; in - Rahis; r - leaflets; d - sweets; E - riding

Simple and complex leaves.A sheet with a single plate that does not have articulation with a cushion or reason called simple. Sheet called complex(Fig. 9), if he has one or more plates, each of them has its own articulated with a shared cushion - rahis. Each sheet plate of complex sheet is called a leaflet, or a plate.

Fig. 10. Types of leaf dismemberment

Single-grade complex sheet - Lemon, Mandarin, a threely complex sheet - near strawberries, clover, a nasty sheet - in Lupine, Konsky's chestnut, the unparalleled sheet - in a rowan, ash (the top sheet is one, and only the side leaflets are located in pairs on a shared dress) and Parsley - Sociscoupler, pea (all the leaflets occupy a lateral position on a shared pot and are placed in pairs).

Complex leaves are often confused with simple (Fig. 10, 11), having a deeply dissected plate: three-particle-solid - in the anemone, finished - in the laptop of a reprehension, non-parpty-soluble - in the laptop of a goose, a lireless sheet - in potatoes (nonpoperistic sheet with the largest top segment) . Each separate part of the plates is called segment. The segment does not have articulation with a camp. The shape and size of the leaves is an important taxonomic sign.

A variety of leafy plates.The plates of simple leaves and sheets of complex leaves are very diverse under the total outline (rounded, oval, egg-shaped, linear and others), in shape of the edge of the plate (the edge can be solid, gear, saw, wavy), the nature of the housing (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11. Forms of a sheet plate

Numerous veins crosses the record in different directions. On the plate there may be one powerful vein, walking in its middle. it midrib. From her, more subtle side, which, in turn, are repeatedly branched (birch, oak). Such a dwelling of the record is called a peristry (or peristo-net). If there are several large, more or less identical veins, pinned at the base of the plate and divergers of fan (geranium, buttercup), the jilling is called a palpal (or finger-mesh). If large veins pass along the plate parallel to each other, then the jilling is called parallel (wheat, oatmeal). Considered dwelling is observed in the leaves (Lily of the Lily, Plantain), large veins, in addition to the central, are curved like an arc (Fig. 12).

Fig. 12. Forms of housing sheets: a - dichotomous; b - finger; V - Cherish; g - parallel; D - arc

Three formations of leaves.At the base of one-year escape, the leaves of the lower formation are located (renal scales, scales of bulbs) performing a protective function. These are usually scratched or film, brown, pale green. Ordinary green leaves form the median formation. The leaves of the riding formation are located in the field of inflorescences, are cutting leaves of flowers and perform a protective function (for buds). Some plants (Dubravny Maryannik) they are painted in a bright color and serve to attract insects.

The escape, like root, is the main organ of the plant. Vegetative The shoots typically perform the function of air power, but have a number of other functions and are capable of a variety of metamorphoses. Sporoneosshoots (including flower) specialized as organs reproductiveproviding reproduction.

Escape is formed by the top measurement as a whole and, therefore, is a single organ of the same rank as the root. However, compared to the root, the escape has a more complex structure. Vegetative escape consists of the axial part - stemhaving a cylindrical shape and leaves- Flat side organs sitting on the stem. In addition, the obligatory part of escape is kidney - Proportion of new shoots, providing increasing escape and its branching, i.e. Education system. The main function of escape - photosynthesis - exercise leaves; Stems are predominantly bearing bodies that perform mechanical and conductive functions.

The main feature, distinguishing the escape from the root, is his limpness. The plot of the stem, from which the sheet leaves (leaves) is called knot. Students of the stem between adjacent nodes - intezion. Nodes and interstices are repeated along the escape axis. Thus, escape has metalog structure, metaoomer (repeated element) escapes are a node with a sheet and stuffed kidney and the underlying intersenge ( Fig. 4.16).

Fig. 4.16. Building escape.

The first escape of the plant is his mainescape, or first-order shoot. It is formed from an embryonic escape ending hirelesswhich forms all subsequent main escape meta chairs. According to the provision, this kidney - top; While it persists, this escape is capable of further growth in length with the formation of new meta chambers. Besides the top, on shoot are formed side kidney. Seed plants they are in the sinuses of the leaves and are called praise. From lateral sinus kidneys develop sidesoothes, and there is a branch, at the expense of which the overall photosynthetic surface of the plant increases. Forming system of escaperepresented by the main escape (first-order shoot) and side (second-order shoots), and when reducing branching, the side shoots of the third, fourth and subsequent orders. Escape of any order has its own top kidney and is capable of increasing long.

Bud - This is a successful, not yet unfolding escape. Inside the kidney concluded the meristematic tip of escape - it axEx(fig. 4.17). Apex is an actively working growth center, which ensures the formation of all organs and primary tissues of escape. The source of permanent self-renewal of the apex is the initial cells of the apical meristem, focused on the tip of the apex. Vegetative Apex escape, unlike a smooth appa of the root, regularly forms the protrusions on the surface, which are routine of leaves. Smooth remains only the most tip of the apex, which is called cone increment escape. Its form varies greatly from different plants and does not always have the type of cone, the vertex part of the apex can be low, semi-shaped, flat, or even concave.

Of vegetativethe kidneys develop vegetative shoots consisting of stems, leaves and kidneys. Such a kidney consists of a meristematic stuffed axis ending cone increment, and the inchasal leaves of different ages. The lower sheets due to uneven growth bend inside and cover the upper, younger, riot of leaves and the increasing cone. Nodes in the kidney are brought closer, as the interstices have not yet had time to stretch. In the sinuses of sheet adventures in the kidney, the descendants of the overall kidney of the following order can already be laid ( fig. 4.17). IN vegetative-generative The kidneys laid a number of vegetative meta chambers, and the increasing cone is turned into a reservoir flower or inflorescence. Generative, or floral The kidneys enter into themselves only the incident of inflorescence or a single flower, in the latter case, the kidney is called buton.

Fig. 4.17. Top kidney Eldine escape: A - longitudinal cut; B - the cone of the rise (appearance and longitudinal slice); B - the cells of the apical meristem; G is a parenchymal cell formed by a sheet; 1 - cone of the rise; 2 - Sheet primarily; 3 - Conceptions of the sinus kidney.

Exterior kidney leaves are often modified in renal scheatperforming protective function and protecting meristematic parts of the kidneys from drying and sharp temperature differences. Such kidneys are called closed (Winter buds of trees and shrubs and some perennial herbs). Open The kidneys do not have kidney scales.

In addition to the usual, exogenous, the stuffed kidneys in plants are often formed podid, or adventive kidney. They arise not in the meristematic tip of escape, but on an adult, already differentiated part of an endogenous organ, from inner tissues. Puttingular kidneys can be formed on stems (then they are usually located in interstitial), leaves and roots. Candidage kidneys have great biological significance: they provide active vegetative renewal and reproduction of those perennial plants that they have. In particular, with the help of appropriate kidneys, renew and multiply korneotprosskaya Plants (raspberries, aspen, odds, dandelion). Root offspring - These are shoots that developed from the apparent kidneys on the roots. Pressing kidneys on the leaves are relatively rare. If such kidneys immediately give small shoots with pressing roots, which disappear from the mother of the mother and grow into new individuals, they are called brood (Brofillum).

In the seasonal climate of the temperate zone, the deployment of kidney shoots from the kidneys in most plants is periodic. In the trees and shrubs, as well as many perennial herbaceous plants, the kidneys are unfolded once a year - in the spring or early summer, after which new winter kidneys are formed with the relegations of next year's shoots. Shoots growing from the kidneys in one growing period, called annual shoots, or annual growths. In the trees they vary well due to education renal rings - scars that stay on the stem after the fear of renal scales. In the summer of our leaf fall trees are covered with leaves of annual shoots of only this year; There are no leaves on the annual shoots of past years. In the evergreen trees, the leaves can be maintained on the corresponding one-year increases of 3-5 past years. In a suspicion climate in one year, several shoots separated by small rest periods can be formed. Such shoots formed for one growth cycle are called elementary shoots.

Kidneys flowing for some time to rest state, and then giving new elementary and annual shoots, called wintering or rest. According to them, they can be called regular kidneys renewal. Such kidneys are a mandatory sign of any long-term plant, wood or grassy, \u200b\u200bit is they who ensure the manyness of the existence of individuals. By the origin of the renewal kidney can be exogenous (top or stuff), and endogenous (apparent).

If the side kidneys do not have a period of growth rest and are deployed simultaneously with the growth of maternal escape, they are called kidneys of enrichment. Deploying from them enriching shoots The general photosynthetic surface of the plant is strongly increased (enriched), as well as the total number of inflorescences formed and, therefore, seed productivity. Enrichment shoots are characteristic of most annual herbs and for a number of perennial herbaceous plants with elongated colorless shoots.

A special category is made up sleeping kidney, very characteristic of deciduous trees, shrubs, shrubs and a number of perennial herbs. By origin, they, like the kidney of regular renewal, can be stunned and apparent, but, unlike them, do not unfold into shoots for many years. The incentive for the awakening of sleeping kidneys is usually served or damage to the main barrel or branch (the stroke of a row of a row of trees), or the natural aging of the motherboard of the shoots, associated with the attenuation of the vital activity of normal renewal kidneys (shrub shrubs). Some plants from sleeping kidneys on the trunk are formed non-free colorful shoots. This phenomenon is called caulifloriaand characteristic of many trees of rainforest, for example, for chocolate tree. Glootichia from sleeping kidneys on the trunk grows beams of large branched barns - modified shoots ( Fig. 4.18).

Fig. 4.18. Sleeping of sleeping kidneys: 1 - Cauliflorian in chocolate tree; 2 - Spines in Glootichia from branched sleeping kidneys.

Direction of growth of shoots. Shoots growing vertically, perpendicular to the surface of the earth, are called orthotropic. Horizontally growing shoots are called plagiotropic. The direction of growth may change during the development of escape.

Depending on the position in space, morphological types of shoots are distinguished ( fig. 4.19.). The main escape in most cases retains orthotropic growth and remains represented. Side shoots can grow in different directions, often they form a different value of angle with maternal escape. In the process of growth, escape can change the direction from the plagiotropic to orthotropic, then it is called rising, or ascending. Shoots with a plagiotropic growth that remained during the lifetime shining. If they form in the nodes the apparent roots, they are called creeping.

Orthotropic growth is associated in a certain way with the degree of development of mechanical tissues. In the absence of well-developed mechanical tissues in elongated shoots, orthotropic growth is impossible. But often plants that do not possess a fairly developed inner skeleton, still grow up. This is achieved in various ways. Weak shoots of such plants - liantwist around any solid support ( women shoot), caress with various kinds of hooks, hooks, roots - bars ( lyezing shoot), cling to the help of the assholes of various origin ( cling shoot).

Fig. 4.19. Types of shoots on position in space : A - reprehension; B - clinging; B - curly; G - creeping; D - pinch.

List. Late position, or phillotaxis - The order of placement of leaves on the escape axis. Distinguish several basic types of spotlights ( fig. 4.20).

Spiral, or regular The list is observed when one sheet is located on each node, and the base of consecutive leaves can be combined with a conditional spiral line. Double Location can be considered as a special case of spiral. At the same time, one sheet is located on each node, covering a wide base all or almost the entire axis circumference. Mutovskaya Location position occurs if several leaves are laid on one node. Opposite The listocation is a private case of mutual when two sheets are formed on one node, exactly against each other; most often such a leaf focus happens emboss the opposite. Neighboring pairs of leaves are in mutually perpendicular planes ( Fig. 4.20).

Fig. 4.20. Types of sheets addiction : 1 - spiral oak; 2 - a scheme of spiral leaflengths; 3 - Double Gasterei ( but- plant type on the side, b. - top view, scheme); 4 - mutter in Oleander; 5 - the opposite lilac.

The procedure for the embezzlement of sheets at the Eugene Agex is the hereditary sign of each type, sometimes characteristic of the genus and even a whole family of plants. The disclosure of the adult escape is determined primarily by genetic factors. However, in the process of deploying escape from the kidneys and its further growth on the location of the leaves, external factors may affect the location of the lighting and the strength of gravity. Therefore, the final picture of the list may differ greatly from the initial and usually acquires a pronounced adaptive character. The leaves are located in such a way that their plates turn out to be in the most favorable lighting conditions in each particular case. It is most brightly manifested in the form sheet Mosaicobserved on plagiotropic and socket shoots of plants. At the same time, the plates of all leaves are arranged horizontally, the leaves do not shade each other, and form a single plane where there are no cleansings; Smaller leaves fill the gaps between large.

Types of branching escape.Branching is the formation of an axis system. It provides an increase in the total area of \u200b\u200bcontact of the body of the plant with an air medium, water or soil. The branching arose in the process of evolution even before the emergence of organs. In the simplest case, the top of the main axis of Wilechato branches and gives the beginning of two axes of the next order. it upper, or dichotomous branching Many multicellular algae, as well as some primitive plants, such as frames, possess the top branch. fig. 4.21).

For the remaining groups of plants, more specialized side Type of branching. In this case, the side branches are laid below the tops of the main axis, without affecting its ability to further increasing. With this method, the potential capabilities of branching and formation of organ systems are much more extensive and biologically beneficial.

Fig. 4.21. Types of branching escape:A - dichotomous (plan); B - monopodial (juniper); In - sympodial in the type of monohasia (cherry); M is sympodial by type Dihazia (Maple).

Distinguish two types of side branch: monopodial and sympodial(fig. 4.21). With a monopodial branching system, each axis represents monopodies, i.e. The result of the operation of one top meristem. Monopodial branching is characteristic of most vote and many herbaceous coated plants. Most of the coated plants, however, branch over the sympoomy type. In case of sympodial branching, the top kidney of the escape at a certain stage dies or stops active growth, but the strengthened development of one or several side kidneys begins. Of them, shoots, replacing escape, ceased growth. The axis formed at the same time is a symptio - an integral axis consisting of several consecutive axes. The ability of plants to sympodial branching has a large biological significance. In case of damage to the top kidney, the axis growth will continue lateral shoots.

Depending on the number of replacing axes, sympodial branching by type monohasia, dihasia and playohyzia. Branching by type Dihasia, or falconicomic Branching is characteristic of escapes with the opposition (Lilac, Kalina).

In some groups of plants, the increasing of the main skeletal axes is due to one or few top kidneys, the side skeletal branches are not at all form or are formed in a very small number. The tree plants of this type are found mainly in the tropical areas (palm trees, drasens, yukki, agaves, cigards). The krone of these plants is not formed by branches, but by large leaves, close to the rosette on the top of the trunk. The ability to quickly grow and seize space, as well as to restore after damage, such plants are often absent or poorly expressed. Among the tremess climate trees, such unreleased forms are practically not found.

Another extreme - plants, too abundantly branching. They are represented by life form plant pillows (fig. 4.22). The rise in the length of the shoots in these plants is extremely limited, but the many side twigs diverging in all directions are formed annually. The surface of the system of shoots of the plant looks like a trimmed; Some pillows are so dense that they look like stones.

Fig. 4.22. Plants - Pillows : 1, 2 - schemes of the structure of plants-pillows; 3 - Azenella from Kergelen Island.

Representatives of life form are very branched. tumbleweedcharacteristic of steppe plants. The ballly branched, a very loose escape system is a huge inflorescence, which after ripening the fruit is laid out at the base of the stem and rolls the wind along the steppe, dispelled seeds.

Specialization and metamorphosis of shoots. Many plants within the escape system there is a certain specialization. Orthotropic and plagiotropic, elongated and shortened shoots perform different functions.

Extensioncall shoots with normally developed interstices. Wood plants are called Rostov and are located along the periphery of the crown, determining its form. Their main function is the seizure of space, an increase in the volume of photosynthetic organs. Shortening Soothes have pinned knots and very short interstices ( fig. 4.23). They are formed inside the crown and absorb the dissipated light penetrating there. Often shortened shoots in the trees are colorless and perform the reproduction function.

Fig. 4.23. Cropped (a) and elongated (b) Plaidal shoots: 1 - interstitial; 2 - annual growths.

Herbatous plants are usually shortened socket The shoots perform the function of perennial skeletal and photosyntheses, and the elongated are formed in the sinuses of the socket leaves and are color-based (plantain, cuff, violet). If the stuffed flowers are beyond, they are called arrows. The fact that woody plants have flowering shoots shortened, and in herbaceous - elongated, biologically well explain. For successful pollination, the inflorescence of herbs should be raised over the grass, and in the trees even shortened shoots in the crown are in favorable for polling conditions.

An example of the specialization of shoots can serve a perennial axial organs of woody plants - trunks and sucia crowns. In deciduous trees, annual shoots lose the assimilation function after the first growing season, in the evergreens - in a few years. A part of the shoots after losing the leaves die out entirely, but most remain as skeletal axes performing a support, conductive and stocking functions for decades. Lained leaf skeletal axes are known entitled bitch and stems (in trees), svolikov(in shrubs).

During the adaptation to the specific conditions of the habitat or in connection with the sharp change of the functions, the shoots can be modified (metamorphised). Especially often metamphizes shoots developing underground. Such shoots lose the function of photosynthesis; They are common in perennial plants, where they act as an adverse period of the year, reserve and renewal.

The most commonly found underground metamorphosis of escape is rhizome (fig. 4.24). Rape is made to call a durable underground escape that performs the features of the sediment of spare nutrients, renewal, and sometimes vegetative reproduction. Rhizome is formed in perennial plants, as a rule, which are not in adulthood of the main root. On position in space it can be horizontal, skit or vertical. Rhizome usually does not carry green leaves, but, being escaped, retains a metairer structure. The nodes are highlighted either by sheet scars and remnants of dry leaves, or by alive scaped leaves, also in nodes there are stubborn kidneys. According to these signs, rhizome is easy to distinguish from the root. As a rule, pressing roots are formed on rhizome; The side branches of rhizomes and overhead shoots grow out of the kidneys.

Close to rhizomes underground counters- short-lived thin underground shoots carrying underdeveloped scaled leaves. Stalls serve for vegetative reproduction, resettlement and seizure of the territory. Spare nutrients in them are not postponed.

Some plants (potatoes, an earthen pear) by the end of summer from the tops of the stewards are formed tubers (Fig. 4.24). The tuber has a spherical or oval shape, the stem is strongly thickened, spare nutrients are postponed in it, the leaves are reduced, kidneys are formed in their sinuses. Stokers die and destroyed, the tubers are overwhelmed, and the next year they began to start a new above-ground shoots.

Corm Externally resembles a bulb, but its scratched leaves are not in stockpit; They are dry and film, and spare substances are deposited in a thickened stem part (saffron, gladiolus).

Not only underground, but also the above-ground shoots of plants can be modified ( fig. 4.25). Quite often found overhead counters. These are plagiotropic short-lived shoots, the function of which is vegetative reproduction, resettlement and seizure of the territory. If the collises carry green leaves and participate in the process of photosynthesis, they are called pletia (Kostyannik, luggage creeping). Strawberry staff are devoid of developed green leaves, they have thin and fragile stems, with very long interstices. Such more highly specialized for the function of vegetative reproduction of collishes are called usami.

Fig. 4.25. Overhead escape metamorphosis: 1 - Stem succulent (cactus); 2 - grapes; 3 - a leafless photosynthesizing Escape of the Cross; 4 - Filocladium Igles; 5 - Spiky Glootichia.

Fig. 4.26. Spines of various origin : 1 - barberry leaf straps; 2 - spines of white acacia, modification of horses; 3 - spines of the hawthorn of shooting origin; 4 - spikes - Emergeni Rosehip.

The first escape of the plant is formed from the germinal kids - its main escape, or escape of first order.

From the main escape form side shoots, or second order shoots, and when repetition of branching - third order, etc.

Applying shoots Formed from the apparent kidneys.

Escape on which flowers are formed, called flower escape, or coloros (Sometimes the term "floweros" is understood in a narrower sense - as a plot of a stem on which flowers are located).

The main bodies escape

Monopodial branching

Monopodial plants - The term most frequently used in the description of plants of tropical and subtropical flora, as well as in popular science literature on room and greenhouse flower growing.

Monopodial plants can differ significantly externally. Among them there are sockets, with elongated escape, bush.

Sympodial branching

Sympodial branching is typical for many coated plants: for example, for Lip, Yves and many orchid.

Sympodial plants - The term most commonly used in the description of plants of tropical and subtropical flora, as well as in popular science literature on room and greenhouse flower growing.

Bulbophyllum Grandiflorum

Cirrhopetalum Macraei.. Curtis "S Botanical Magazine Vol. 127 Ser. 3 Nr. 57 Tab. 7787, 1901

Oncidium dasystyle. Curtis "S Botanical Magazine Vol. 127 Ser. 3 Nr. 57 Tab. 7787, 1901

Dendrobium Senile.. Curtis "S Botanical Magazine Vol. 127 Ser. 3 Nr. 57 Tab. 7787, 1901

Evolution of branch types

Seagility modifications (metamorphosis)

The main type of green plant escape is an overhead (air) assimilating escape, carrying green-based green formations on the axis. However, assimilant shoots are not the same. Often, along with the main function of photosynthesis, others serve others: the deposition of reserves and the reference function (mostly in perennial stems), vegetative reproduction (creeping shoots, whites).

Winding of underground escapes

The shoots living under the ground, under the influence of a complex of conditions, sharply different from the ground medium, almost completely lost the functions of photosynthesis and acquired other equally important life functions, such as organs transfer the adverse period, soaring nutrients, vegetative renewal and reproduction of plants. Underground modified shoots include: rhizome, cakex, underground column and tuber, bulb, clubnellukovitsa.

Kaodex. - a long-term body of shooting the origin of perennial herbs and semi-shops with a well-developed rod root, which remains throughout the life of the plant. Together with the root, it serves as a place of deposits of spares and bears a lot of renewal kidney, some of which can be sleeping. Caudek plants are a lot among umbrellas (fear, furul), legumes (alfalfa, lupines), complex (dandelion, wormwood, grouse vasileuk).

Underground counteus - Annual extended subtle underground escape with underdeveloped scratched leafy leaves. On the thickened ends of the collines of the plants can accumulate spare substances, forming tubers or bulbs (potatoes, saddumpp, adox).

Stem tuber - A modified escape with a pronounced pointer stem, the presence of crystal leaves, which quickly peel, and the kidneys that are forming in the sneakers of the leaves and called eyes (potatoes, Topinamburg).

Bulb - Underground (less often above ground) strongly shortened specialized escape, in which spare substances are postponed in the scales of the sheet nature, and the stem is converted to the bottom. The bulb is a typical organ of vegetative renewal and reproduction. The bulbs are characteristic of one-bedroom plants from the family of Lily (Lilia, Tulip, Bow), Amarillic (Amarillis, Narcissus, Hyacinth), etc. As an exception, they are also found in dicotomic - in some types of acidic and granolases.

Corm - a modified underground shortened escape with a thick stem, sparkling assimilants, apparent roots, growing from the lower side of the clubnelukovitsa, and the remaining dried bases of leaves (film scales), together constituting protective cover. Clubneelukovitsy have saffron, gladiolus, a lack of junk.

Modifications of overhead escapes

An unusual lifestyle and / or adaptation to the special conditions of the existence of plants leads to various modifications of shoots. At the same time, shoots can serve not only for storing nutrients, reproduction and reproduction of plants, but also perform other functions. There are often cases when not all the escape is modified, but only its leaves, and some of their metamorphoses externally and functionally gathering with escape metamorphoses (spines, mustlemen).

Kolyuk - a strongly decisive, a leafless shortened escape with a sharp top. Spines of shooting origin perform mainly a protective function. At the wild apple tree, wild pears, crazy laxatives ( Rhamnus Cathartica.) In the spines, shortened shoots are converted, having limited growth and ending the edge. Glootichia ( GLEDITSCHIA TRIACANTHOS.) Powerful branched spines are formed on siblings from sleeping kidneys. Many species of hawthorn have spines, forming from the stubble kidney of the leaves, which topographically corresponds to lateral shoots.

Pretodium - a modified lateral escape, which has the ability to long-term growth, with green flat long stems that perform the function of the sheet. As an organ of photosynthesis, prettle has a well-developed chlorophyllon fabric located under the epiderm. Plants with quarters include Mulenbekia placcoon ( Muhlenbekia Platyclada.), cactus-Decembrist ( Zygocactus Truncates.), Karmikhelia South ( Carmichaelia australis), college ( Colletia Cruciata.) and omitation ( Opuntia.).

Fillocladium - A modified leaf-shaped flattened side escape, which has limited growth and performing sheet functions. Filloclasia develops from side kidneys, therefore always in the sinus of a small film or scaled leaf. Performing the function of photosynthesis, the shoots of philocladium and externally acquire similarities with a sheet, which is manifested in a limited growth and complete loss of the metaireral structure. Philloclaadium phenomenon is characteristic of such plants like a needle, dare, types of childbirth asparagus ( Asparagus.), Fillantus ( Phyllanhtus.). Filloclands are found not only in coated, but also in some voted, in particular, at the coniferous plant from the family of nine-folding - phillocladus.

Notes

Literature

Korovkin O. A. Anatomy and morphology of higher plants: a dictionary of terms. - M: Drop, 2007. - 272 p. - ISBN 978-5-358-01214-1
Nukhimovsky E. L. Basics of biomorphology of seed plants: Habitus and form of growth in the organization Biomorph. - M: Overley, 2002. - T. 2. - 859 p. - 750 copies. - ISBN 5-85493-067-6
Botany with phytocenology bases: the anatomy and morphology of plants: studies. For universities / Serebryakov, T. I. et al. - M: ICC "Academkniga", 2007. - P. 341-365. - 2,000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-94628-237-6

Timonin A. K. Botany: In 4 T. - M: Publishing Center "Academy", 2007. - T. 3. - P. 52-69. - 3,000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-7695-3184-2
Botany. Textbook for universities: in 4 tons. T. 1. Cellular biology. Anatomy. Morphology. Based on the textbook by E. Strasburger / Ed. A. K. Timonin, V. V. Chuba. - M: Publishing center "Academy", 2007. - T. 1. - P. 261-266. - 3,000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-7695-2744-9
Lotova L. I. Botany: Morphology and anatomy of higher plants: Tutorial. - M: Komkniga, 2007. - P. 312-321. - 1 500 copies. - ISBN 978-5-484-00698-4
Barabanov E. I., Zaychikova S.G. Botany: studies. For stud. universities. - M: Publishing Center "Academy", 2006. - P. 82-85. - 3,000 copies. - ISBN 5-7695-2656-4

Yakovlev G. P., Cheerbroke V. A. Botany: studies. For stud. universities. - St. Petersburg: Speclite, Publishing House of SPHF, 2003. - P. 129-132. - 5,000 copies. - ISBN 5-299-00237-8
Andreeva I. I., Roman L. S. Botany. - M: Colossus, 2005. - P. 172-175. - 3,000 copies. - ISBN 5-9532-0114-1
Tropical and subtropical plants. Funds of the Main Botanical Garden of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Cactaceae-Compositae). M.: Science, 1976.
Smirnova E.S. Morphology of shooting systems orchid. - M.: Science, 1990

Theory for preparing for block No. 4 of the EGE on biology: with estimat and variety of organic world.

Root

Root - underground vegetative organ of higher plants, which has an unlimited growth in length.

Root functions

Fixing Plants in Substrate
Suction, water and minerals
Nutrient stock
Interaction with roots of other plants, mushrooms, microorganisms living in the soil (mycorrgeis, legumes of legumes)
Vegetative reproduction
Synthesis of biologically active substances
Many plant roots perform special functions (air roots, roots of suction cups)
Modifications and specialization of roots
The roots of some buildings have a tendency to metamorphosis

Roots are different, namely, they can be modified.

Channel modifications

Korneflood - a modified juicy root. The main root and lower part of the stem participate in the formation of the root. Most root plants are twilight. Roots consist mainly from the basin of basic fabric (turnip, carrots, parsley).
Root tubers - Cornefube (root cones) are formed as a result of thickening of side and apparent roots (tulips, dahlias, potatoes).
Air roots - side roots, grow down. Absorb the rainwater and oxygen from the air. Many tropical plants are formed under high humidity.
Mikoriza - the cohabitation of the roots of higher plants with gifs of mushrooms. With such a mutually beneficial cohabitation, called symbiosis, the plant receives water from the mushroom with nutrients dissolved in it, and the mushroom is organic substances. Mycorridge is characteristic of the roots of many higher plants, especially woody. Mushroom gifs that are tired of thick and shrub's root roots are performed by root hairs.
Bacterial nodules on the roots of higher plants - the cohabitation of higher plants with nitrogen-fixing bacteria - are modified lateral roots, adapted to symbiosis with bacteria. Bacteria penetrate the root hairs inside the young roots and cause them to form the nodule.
Respiratory roots - in tropical plants - perform the function of additional breathing.

Distinguish:

main root
side roots
putting roots

The main root develops from the embryonic root. Side roots arise at any root as a side branch. Putting roots are formed by escape and its parts.

The totality of the roots of one plant is called the root system.

Types of root systems

Sodle
Urine
Branchy

IN santneva The root system is the main root strongly developed and is well noticeable among other roots (characteristic of two-colon). The rod root system penetrates the soil usually deeper than the urine.

IN urine The root system in the early stages of development, the main root formed by the embryonic root, dies, and the root system is made up with apparent roots (characteristic of one-bedroom). The urine root system better flies the adjacent ground particles, especially in its upper fertile layer.

IN branchy The root system is dominated by the same developed main and several side roots (in wood species, strawberries).

The escape

The escape - This is a stem with leaves and kidneys located on it.

Composite parts of escape are stem, leaves, kidneys. In germination of the seed from the germinal kids, the first escape of the plant is formed - its main escape, or first-order shoot. From the main escape, side shoots are formed, or second-order shoots, and when the branching is the third order, etc., the apparent shoots are formed from the apparent kidneys.

Escape on which flowers are formed is called a color-based shoot, or a color-seater (sometimes the term "blooming" is understood in a narrower sense - like a plot of a stem on which flowers are located).

In a seasonal climate, temperate latitudes, the growth and development of kidney shoots is periodic. Sustainers and trees, as well as most perennial herbs, this happens once a year - in spring or early summer, after which the winter kidneys for the next year are formed, and at the end of the summer - in the fall, the growth of shoots ends.

Building escape

A (with leaves). one - stem; 2 - sheet; 3 - node; four - interstice; 5 - Obsolete Sheet; 6 - stubborn kidney; 7 - Top kidney.

B (after leaffall). 1 - top kidney; 2 - renal rings; 3 - sheet scars; 4 - side kidneys.

Types of shoots

1 - reprehensible; 2 - lifting; 3 - creeping; 4 - swallowing; 5 - curly; 6 - climbing.

Victims of escapes

Spiky - a strongly decisive, a leafless shortened escape with an acute tip. Spines of shooting origin perform mainly a protective function. At the wild apple tree, wild pears, crazy laxatives (Rhamnus cathartica) in the spines turn into a shortened shoots that have limited growth and ending edges.
A mustache is a hardeless branching or unbreakable escape of the metaireral structure, in a typical case deprived of leaves. Steel mustache, as highly specialized escape, perform a reference function.
Rhizome - Underground Escape with Czech-shaped Leaves of Low Formations, Kidneys and Pressure Roots. Thick, highly branched creeping rhizomes are characteristic of drinking, short and pretty fleshy - for sale, iris, very thick - for a cube, pita.
The stem tuber is a modified escape with a pronounced pointer stem function, the presence of scratched leafs that quickly peel, and the kidneys that are formed in the sneakers of the leaves and called the eyes (Topinamburg).
The bulb - underground (less frequently surrounded) strongly shortened specialized escape, in which spare substances are postponed in the scales of the sheet nature, and the stem is converted into the bottom. The bulb is a typical organ of vegetative renewal and reproduction. The bulbs are characteristic of one-bedroom plants from the family of Lily (Lilia, Tulip, Bow), Amarillic (Amarillis, Narcissus, Hyacinth), etc. As an exception, they are also found in dicotomic - in some types of acidic and granolases.
Clubneelukovitsa - a modified underground shortened escape with a thick stem, stocking assimilants, apparent roots growing from the lower side of the clubnellukovitsa, and the remaining dried bases of the leaves (film scales), together the protective cover components. Clubneelukovitsy have a non-lunist, gladiolus, Ixia, Saffron.

Stem

Stem - An extended escape of higher plants, serving a mechanical axis, also performs the role of producing and supporting base for leaves, kidneys, flowers.

Classification of stems

By location relative to the soil level:

overhead

underground

According to the degree of alliance:

herbaceous
rustic (for example, the trunk - the main multi-year stem of the tree; shrubs stems called trunks)

In the direction and nature of growth:

strengthening (for example, sunflower)
lying (sharpening) - stalks lie on the surface of the soil, without rooting (coin velbeyn)
rising (ascending) - the lower part of the stem lies on the surface of the soil, and the upper rises vertically (saber)
creeping - Stems are sprinkled along the ground and rooted due to the formation of the apparent roots in the nodes (Ilushoid coach)
clinging (bonding) - attach to the support with the help of the mustache (peas)
curly - Thin Stems, Spoding Support (Lunosyannik)

In the form of cross-section:

rounded
spleasing
three-, four-, multifaceted (boundary)
ribbed
furochy (grooved)
winged - Stems, whose sharp grades stretch flat herbaceous grown (Forest rank) or bonding the base of the leaf (medicinal stem)

Structure of stem

Outside, the stalk is protected by cover fabrics. In the young stems of the spring cell of the coating fabric are covered with thin-Ukrainian. Perennial plants by the end of the first year of life, the skin is replaced by a multi-layer fraud consisting of dead cells filled with air. For breathing in a leather (in young shoots) there are dusts, and later the devices are large, large, loosened cells with large interclausers.

To the coating fabric adjacent formed by different tissues. The outer part of the cortex is represented by layers of mechanical tissue cells with thickened shells and thin-walled cells of the main fabric. The inner part of the cortex is formed by cells of conductive fabric and calledLub.

The composition of the Luba includes aide tube, according to which the downward current goes: organic substances are moving from leaves. Synotoid tubes consist of cells connected by the ends into the long tube. There are small holes between adjacent cells. Through them, how through sieve, organic substances formed in the leaves are moved.

Synotoid tubes remain alive long, more often than 2-3 years, occasionally - 10-15 years. To replace them, they are constantly formed new. Synotoid tubes make up a small part in Lube and are usually collected in bundles. In addition to these bundles in Lube, there are cells of mechanical tissue, mainly in seen fibers, and cells of the main fabric.

To the center from the Luba in the stem is another conductive orpower fabric.

Wood is formed by different in the form and magnitude of the cells and consists of anosis (trachea), tracheidide fibers. There is an upward current: water with substances dissolved in it moves from roots to leaves.

The center of the stem is a thick layer of loose cells of the main fabric, in which the reserves of nutrients are deposited - etoserdtsevin.

Some plants (dahlia, tulip, cucumber, bamboo) are engaged in air cavities.

Between the wood and the lobe in the bombing plants there is a thin layer of the cells of the educational fabric -kambi. As a result of division of Cambia cells increases (grows) the thickness of the stem. Cambia cells are divided along its axis. One of the subsidiaries appearing cells is departed to the wood, and the other to the Luba. The increase is particularly noticeable in the wood. The division of Cambia cells depends on the seasonal rhythm - in the spring and summer occurs actively (large cells are formed), it slows down in the fall (small cells are formed), and it stops in the winter. As a result, a one-year growth of wood is formed, many trees are well called a one-year ring. In terms of the number of annual rings, you can calculate the age of escape and wood as a whole.

The width of the annual rings in the wood plant depends on environmental conditions. So, in a cold climate, the magnitude of the annual rings of the wood is very small. In favorable climatic conditions, the thickness of the annual rings increases on the rich soils. Comparing the alternation of wide and narrow annual rings in the trunk, can be determined under what conditions the plant lived, as well as to establish weather fluctuations in many years.

Functions of the stem

conductive (main function)

The stalk serves as a support plant, he keeps the severity of leaves, flowers and fruits on him.

reference

Spare nutrients can be laid in the stem. This manifests the stocking function of the stalk. With the help of the stalk of the Escape makes its leaves and kidneys to the light during the growth of the plant. This is the important axial function of the stem and growth function.

Sheet

Sheet - One of the most important organs of plants, the main functions of which is photosynthesis, gas exchange and transpiration.

The inner structure of the sheet

The sheet consists of the following fabrics:

The epidermis is a cell layer that protect against the harmful effects of the medium and excessive water evaporation. Often over top of the epidermis, the sheet is covered with a protective layer of wax origin (cuticle).
Parenchima is an internal chlorophyllon fabric that performs the main function - photosynthesis.
A network of veins formed by conductive beams consisting of vessels and sieve tubes to move water dissolved salts, sugars and mechanical elements.
Ustian - special cell complexes located, mainly on the lower surface of the leaves; Through them there is evaporation of water and gas exchange.

The external structure of the sheet

Sheet externally consists of:

puff (Sheet Stand)
sheet plate (blades)
highlights (paired appendages located on both sides of the base of the pet
the place where the pet is adjacent to the stalk, called the vagina of the sheet
angle formed by a sheet (sheet with a sheet) and the overwear of the stem, the stem is called the sinus
a kidney may form in the sinus of the sheet (which in this case is called the sinus kidney), the flower (called the sinus flower), inflorescence (called stubby inflorescence)

Not all plants have all parts of the leaves, some species have paired strips are not clearly pronounced or absent; There may be no petiole, and the sheet structure may not be a lamellar.

1. What are the features of the structure and growth of shoots?

The escape -this is a vegetative organ that originated in plants as an adapter to life in the Sushi air environment.In structure, escape is more complicated than the root. It consists of a stem, leaves and kidneys. Stem- Easy escape. It is adapted to you-completely very important function - the movement of substances on the plant. The stem holds on itself leaves.Sheet is the side of escape. The main functions of Lees are photosynthesis and evaporation of water, or transpiration.Thanks to the kidneys, escape can branch upand form escape systems,by increasing the area of \u200b\u200bplanting plants. Escape that develops from the embryo is called main.

Most plants on the stem clearly visible nodes and interstices. Knot- place where leaves are departed from the stem, and interstown -distance between adjacent nodes. Imaginary angle between stem and sheet called sheet PazhyAt the top of the stem and the leafy sinuses are located kidney.Those that are located on the tops of the shoots are called top,and those that are located in the sneakers - sidewaysor praise. The increasing escape is ensured by the activity of educational fabric, which is located on the top of the stem - the axial part of the escape. Due to the top night, it grows in a height, and at the expense of the side - vet. In this way, bud — this is a breaker.Break kidney vegetativeand generative. The kidney from which new shoots can be formed are called vegetative. The kidney from which the flower or inflorescence is called, called generative.

Some kidneys in plants develop everyday life. Others can develop for several years, then they are called sleeping.Enactive kidneys, which can be formed not only on shoots, but also on roots are important in the life of plants.

2. What is due to the variety of shoots? Material from site.

Saving different plants differ in many signs. By origin, the main and side shoots allocate. The main thingthey call the first escape of the plant, which is formed from the germinal escape of the seed. And the shoots that are formed on the main thing will be side. Depending on the functions, the beatings are divided into vegetative and reproductive. Vegetativethe shoots perform the main vital functions of the plant organism (photosynthesis, breathing, etc.), and reproductive -specialize in both reproduction authorities and reproduce. In the length of interstitial shoots there are extensionand shortened.Some rarenes are so short that the leaves are tightly located one of the other, as a result of which the socket is formed (for example, dandelion, daisy, plantain). Such shortened escapes are called otset.Cropped fruit trees (for example, apple trees, pears), on which color-ki and fruits are formed, gardeners are called flushedthey are carefully preserved during the cutting of trees. Sometimes very long shoots with large leaves are developing on the trees with sleeping kidneys, much greater than typical. Such shoots are called wolfthey are fruitless and need to be deleted. In the direction of growth distinguish verticaland horizontalshoots. Vertical shootsusually called reprehensiblethey grow straight up (for example, trees trunks, tomato shoots). BUT creeping shootsstrawberry lying shootsmelon, watermelon, side branchestrees are examples of shoots growing horizontally.There are shoots that first grow horizontally, and then - vertically (for example, in a ray, deaf nettle). So, the variety of shoots is due to their origin, functions and features of the structure.

3. What building and value have kidneys?

The kidney is a stuffy escape. If the kidney is a successful escape, then it should be the rigs of the stem, leaves and kidneys. This can be killed if you make a cross-section of the kidney and rake it with a magnifying glass. At the top of the ridiculous stem, there is an educational fabric called the increment cone.Due to the de-weakness of the educational fabric, the cone of the rise is formed by constant tissues and escape growth occurs. Outside the kidneys are protected by cookens, which are modified leafies. The kidneys are distinguished by dimensions, form, location, functions, etc.. Features of the kidneys are used to distinguish trees and shrubs in winter. The kidneys provide growth of plants in height and branching, transfer of unfavorable conditions, variations, etc., etc.