Electric lighting fixtures. Lighting devices: types and purpose. Lighting parameters

Every day, without thinking, we all use such a wonderful thing as electric lighting. Lamps have become as integral a part of everyday life for us as toothbrushes, but few people remember and know how the development of lighting devices actually took place, whose contribution to the development of the electric power industry was the most significant, and how the Americans once again “heated up hands" on the research of all mankind.

So, the topic of today's narrative is the history of illumination, as it is, with the voicing of facts and dates behind which lie great discoveries and the tireless work of great inventors.

Like any historical topic, the development of electricity will be impossible to cover in full in a regular article. But we will try to remember the most important milestones of this process, and remember the scientists who did their work day and night so that today you and I: drive a car, watch TV, use smartphones and illuminate our home at night.

Playing with fire

It is generally accepted that the first source of fire for ancient man (let's call him the Tamer) was lightning, striking trees and igniting them. The curious and brave Tamer approached the fire and felt the warmth it gave.

Then the Tamer had a thought (recall that today scientists tend to believe that ancient man’s brain worked much better than his contemporary, since he constantly had to solve the problem of survival, which made his mind sharp and fast), why am I freezing? nights in your shelter, because you can heat it. He took the burning branch and ran home joyfully.

Since then, the Tamer and all his numerous relatives and descendants have learned not only to warm themselves by the fire, but also to cook delicious hot food on it, to illuminate the space around them, to find religious use for it, and most importantly, to kindle the flame on their own, since the new lightning may not strike nearby for years, or even decades.

Fire equipment also changed over time:

Initially, the fire burned in the middle of a stone cave, uniformly heating and illuminating the space around it.
The fire was then placed in a special place called the hearth to protect themselves and small children from burns and injury.

In Rus' they came up with the idea of using lit wood chips, called a torch, as a light source. The principle is very simple - it was fixed at an angle on a stand with a metal tip (light) and the lower end was set on fire. A metal sheet or a vessel with water was placed under the fire to protect the house from fire.
Over time, people began to discover more and more new substances that can support combustion. Various oils and resins were used, thanks to which new sources of lighting appeared - oil burners and torches.

Now it has become much easier to illuminate large spaces. The lamps burned for a long time and provided, although dim, uniform illumination. Many years later, such burners began to be used for street lighting.

In royal castles and city halls, special employees appeared who were responsible for burning such lamps.

But the history of the development of fire lighting did not stop there. After many thousands of years, fat suppositories appeared. The properties of fat burning became known to man long before this; it was simply not possible to find a practical application of this information before. The author of the article cannot even imagine how much time and effort it took to figure out that a thin stick should be dipped into melted fat and allowed to harden. Truly, human intelligence and zeal are limitless!

The use of fire as a light source does not end there. In 1790, French engineer Philippe Le Bon began working on processes for distilling dry wood and was soon able to release a gas that burned much brighter than any other light device of the day. For some time he continued his experiments, improving the process, and soon the first gas jet, for which Philip received a patent, saw the light of day.

The first street in the world lit by gas burners is London's Pall Mall - in 1807, King George IV ordered this, since the street was considered the busiest and required traffic regulation.

Gas lighting of streets and squares came to Russia more than 50 years later - such lamps appeared on the streets of St. Petersburg and Moscow in the 60s of the 19th century.

Gas lighting was a real revolution in science and technology of that time. The first burners were far from perfect and often caused fires, but over time their design was improved, and they continued to serve people. Such lamps were used for a very long time, even after the advent of electric light.

Electricity and lighting on it

Well, we got to the most interesting part - and this is the history of electric lighting. It is difficult to overestimate the role of electric light in the life of a modern person, since absolutely everything depends on it! Today, the absence of a light bulb in the entrance is a real tragedy for its residents.

So, history itself as a science raises many questions. Many modern reputable scientists are inclined to believe that historical reality is far from what we are taught in school today.

We will leave discussions on this issue for professionals; we are interested in the history of the creation of electric lighting, which can safely be called reliable, since it, for the most part, has developed in the last 250 years, and is not distant from us by the dust of time.

Main historical milestones of the era of electricity and epilogue

First of all, let us describe in more detail the penetration of electric light into our lives and remember all the main events and discoveries that contributed to the arrival and development of such lighting. We will tell you about prominent scientists whose names have been unfairly forgotten today.

1780– hydrogen lamps were created, in which, for the first time in history, an electric spark was used for ignition.
1802– the glow of incandescent wire made of platinum and gold is revealed.

1802- Russian scientist, experimental physicist Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov, who independently studied electrical engineering, discovers the phenomenon of an electric arc between two carbon rods. In addition to light radiation, he discovers and proves the practical application of this effect for welding and smelting metals, as well as their recovery from ores. Petrov makes a number of other important discoveries, so he is rightly called the father of domestic electrical engineering.
1802– V.V. Petrov discovers the glow effect of a glow discharge.
1820– English astronomer Warren de la Rue demonstrates the first known incandescent lamp.

1840– German physicist William Robert Grove first used incandescent filaments for heating electricity.

1841- English inventor F. Moleyns patents his light bulb, in which powdered coal glowed, placed between two platinum rods.
1844– The American scientist Starr is trying to create lamps with carbon filaments, but the results of his experiments are ambiguous.
1845- In London, King receives a patent for the use of incandescent filaments made of coal and metal for lighting.

1854– Heinrich Gebel, while in America, for the first time creates a lamp with a thin carbon filament. He uses it to illuminate the window of his store, where he sold the watches he made.
1860– the first gas-discharge mercury tubes appear in England.

1872– Russian electrical engineer Lodygin demonstrates his incandescent lamps, illuminating the audience with them University of Technology in St. Petersburg on Odesskaya street. Two years later, he receives a patent for his invention in several countries.
1874– Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov, a Russian military engineer, electrical engineer and entrepreneur, creates the first installation in the world to illuminate a railway with an electric spotlight mounted on the nose of a locomotive.

1876– P.N. Yablochkov invents a candle made from two carbon rods separated by a dielectric (kaolin). This invention was a revolution in electrical engineering and began to be used everywhere for lighting cities. We'll talk more about this in the next chapter.
1877– Maxim, an American inventor, makes a lamp from a platinum ribbon without a transparent bulb.
1878– Swann, an English scientist, demonstrates his lamp with a carbon rod.

Let us allow ourselves a small lyrical digression. Where did the famous inventor Thomas Edison hide in this whole series of discoveries?

Despite the fact that Edison himself conducted about 1,200 experiments with lamps with his own hands, he can rather be called a talented entrepreneur who managed to refine the design of lamps. The fact is that the main effects and types of lamps had already been invented at that time.

Edison bought up all the necessary patents, combined technologies and invented the incandescent lamp socket, which is familiar to us to this day. We do not belittle the merits of the famous American inventor, it is simply unfair to assume that the incandescent lamp is only his handiwork.

Edison lamps use the same principle as Yablochkov candles, with the only difference being that the entire structure is placed in a vacuum flask, thanks to which the lamp began to work much longer.

In 1880, Thomas Edison received a patent for his invention and began mass production, which gained momentum year by year. Edison became a rich man, while Yablochkov died in 1894 in Saratov in poverty.

1897 - German scientist Walter Nernst creates incandescent lamps with metal filaments. Based on the Edison lamp.
1901 - beginning of the 20th century. Cooper-Hewitt invents the low-pressure mercury lamp.

1902 - Russian scientist of German origin Bolton uses tantalum for an incandescent filament.

1905 - Auer uses tungsten and osmium for the filament.
1906 - Kuch invents the mercury lamp high pressure.
1920 – The halogen cycle is opened.
1913 - Langier invents the gas-filled lamp with a tungsten filament.

The photo shows a low pressure sodium lamp

1931 - Pirani introduces his low-pressure sodium lamp.
1946 - Schultz creates the xenon lamp. In the same year, a high-pressure mercury lamp with a phosphor appeared.
1958 – The first halogen incandescent lamps are created.
1960 - high-pressure mercury lamps with iodine additives.
1961 - The first high-pressure sodium lamp was invented.

1962 - Nick Holonyak creates the first visible light diode By the way, this company was founded by Thomas Edison.
1982 – The halogen lamp can now operate at low voltage.
1983 – Fluorescent lamps become compact.
2006 – LED lamps for home use appeared on the market.

In fact, the above list is far from complete. It could have included the discoveries of many more effects, but, unfortunately, we have limited space, and we chose the most important ones in our opinion.

If you are interested in diving deeper into this issue, then look for information on the Internet or in scientific reference books.

Yablochkov's role in the development of the electric power industry

How can we not talk about electricity itself, and the discoveries associated with it. The first experiments of scientists began back in 1650. Since then, many scientists have become “sick” with this issue, and the result of their work was the creation of electrical mechanical machines.

Since the mid-19th century, there has been an increase in the use of electric motors. Equipment with such a drive began to gradually replace steam engines.

This was greatly facilitated by the introduction into production of the so-called “Yablochkov candle”. No invention before has received such rapid and widespread distribution.

This was a real triumph for the Russian inventor, who also owned many other discoveries:

Yablochkov came up with a way to connect an arbitrary number of lamps to a power source. No one had thought of this before, and each lamp was powered by a separate dynamo.
Pyotr Nikolaevich invented and assembled the first electric current transformer.
Yablochkov learned to use alternating current, which before him was considered dangerous and had no practical application.
Created the first alternating current generator.
He came up with several more light sources.
Created many electric machines.
Invented the first galvanic car battery.

Today, many of the ideas voiced by the talented Russian scientist find new applications in electrical engineering, but he began his career by trying to improve the Foucault regulator, which was common at that time.

In 1974, a government train was supposed to depart from Moscow to Crimea, and the administration of the Moscow-Kursk Railway decided to illuminate the passage in order to improve safety. They turned to Yablochkov, who was rumored to be interested in electrical energy.

Yablochkov places his spotlight on the locomotive, which works on the principle of electric arc formation. The arc lamp had to be constantly adjusted due to the fact that the electric arc occurred only when a certain distance was maintained between the carbon rods. The rods themselves burned out during operation, so a regulating mechanism was required that would move the rods towards each other at the required speed.

The result of the experiment showed that the design of the regulator needed to be simplified, since it required constant attention, and Yablochkov began to think about this problem. Along the way, he conducted experiments on the electrolysis of a solution of table salt.

During one of these experiments, parallel coals in a saline solution touched each other, and a bright electric arc instantly flashed. It was then that the principle of operation of a lamp without a regulator came to the scientist’s mind.

In 1975, Yablochkov took the dynamo he had made to Paris and applied for a patent. In a report at a meeting of the French Society of Physicists, he reported the operating principles of his invention and demonstrated them in action.

On April 15, 1876, while in London, Yablochkov publicly demonstrated the work of his candle at an exhibition of physical instruments. The large audience was delighted. It is this date that is considered triumphant in the biography of the scientist.

What followed was a rapid spread of the novelty, but in 1881 the world was introduced to the incandescent lamp, which could last up to 1000 hours. The new product was much more economical, so the price of using electricity became noticeably lower.

Modern lamps for lighting

Oddly enough, today we still use Edison lamps and Yablochkov candles. And if the former live out their lives, being replaced by luminescent and LED analogues, then the latter have received a complete rebirth.

The electric light arc has returned to us again in the form of halogen car lamps. The use of halogens has made it possible to extend the life of the filament. This also made it possible to create lamps of higher power.

Of course, these lamps are manufactured using new technologies and they use completely different materials than 140 years ago, but the basic principle of operation remains the same as before.

What do we use for lighting today? Fluorescent lamps have become very widespread. They are used for street lighting, lighting of factories, schools, kindergartens and homes. In the 80s of the last century, they learned to make such lamps compact, which made it possible to install them in chandeliers and table lamps.

In other words, modern fluorescent lamps are called energy-saving, and this is not their only advantage:

The use of such lamps made it possible to reduce electricity consumption for lighting by 6-7 times;
They are fireproof, as they do not heat up much during operation;

There are also a lot of disadvantages to such lamps:

Price is the most important of them. The average cost of such a lamp is 200-300 rubles, and this belongs to the low-quality segment.
The lamps have a spiral shape, which is not suitable for every lamp for aesthetic reasons. True, over time they learned to place them in additional flasks of various shapes.

Disposal of energy-saving lamps is a whole problem, since they contain mercury, the vapors of which are considered very toxic.

As you understand, the disadvantages are very serious. This pushed technology to a new leap - LEDs began to be used as the main light source.

Although LEDs were discovered in the middle of the 20th century, they began to be used as lamps only at the beginning of the 21st. The reason lies in the fact that LEDs emit in a very narrow range, which made it difficult to create a light source acceptable to the human eye. In addition, this light radiation is incompatible with human vision and can harm it.

All of these reasons led to a long stage of development, during which most were resolved, and since 2006, LEDs have become a full-fledged light source.

Their arrival marked the following benefits for the acquirers:

Energy consumption has decreased even compared to luminescent energy-saving opponents;
The heat emission of such lamps is at a very low level and is directed not towards the radiation, but into the lamp base, which is still cooler than that of competitors;
Long service life, designed for repeated on/off cycles. In terms of this parameter, no other lamp can match the LEDs;
Color spectrum - a disadvantage has turned into an advantage, since the variety of color radiation has become very large;
Simple disposal - to throw away the lamp, you don’t need to worry about the consequences or run to the collection point;
LED lamps are environmentally friendly - no harmful substances are emitted during their operation;
The housings of many LED lamps are made of durable plastic that can easily survive a drop from a height of several meters.

But as usual, there were some downsides, which we also have to voice:

Some light bulbs exhibit flickering that is invisible to the eye. This applies to cheap products from China and other Asian countries. Such lamps can be harmful to human health.
The same inexpensive products can emit radiation in a spectrum harmful to human eyes.
Light emission from an LED occurs strictly in one direction, which makes the illumination angle very small compared to opponents. To solve the problem, corn-type lamps were designed, as in one of the photos above. In them, the LEDs are located around a central rod, which resembles the cob of the crop after which they are named.
Over time, individual LEDs in the lamp may burn out, causing a drop in brightness. On the one hand, the lamp continues to work, but on the other, its power may no longer be enough for comfortable use, and replacement is inevitable.

Previously, the disadvantages included the price of LED lamps, but recently they have become more and more affordable. So, for example, a good lamp can be bought for 150 rubles. Products from well-known brands, such as Phillips, are still very expensive (from 500 to 2000 rubles).

Advice! Answering the question of which lamp to choose today is not so easy! The video that we attach to the article will help you learn more about modern lighting devices.

From here we can conclude that the evolution of lighting devices is still far from complete. But what we use today is already close to this. Who knows, but maybe tomorrow something conceptually new will be discovered, and LEDs will also become part of history, but for now, they can safely be called the pinnacle of development of lighting devices.

The history of the development of electric lighting, briefly described in our article, has not been fully announced. It was created by more than one thousand bright minds, each of whom contributed to this interesting work. And no matter how insignificant this contribution may seem, without this step there might not have been the next ones. Well, we try not to forget our history and tell our readers about it. That's all! All the best!

The life of a modern person is unthinkable without the use of electricity. Today, the bulk of light sources are electric. About 15% of the total amount of electricity generated is consumed by lighting devices. To reduce energy consumption, increase luminous efficiency and increase the service life of light sources, it is necessary to use the most economical light sources, gradually abandoning older and unreasonably energy-consuming analogues.

Lighting lamps

Let's consider the generally accepted classification. Based on the principles of operation of electrical appliances, the following types of incandescent lighting are distinguished, including halogen incandescent lamps and discharge lamps, as well as LED lamps, which have become increasingly popular over the past few years.

It is worth noting that electric lamps differ in shape, size, amount of energy consumption and heat transfer, service life, and cost. So, let's look at lighting in more detail and determine the advantages and disadvantages of each type.

Types of lamps

Which lamp is the cheapest and easiest to use? This is a familiar incandescent lighting lamp - a veteran in the operation of numerous household electrical appliances. Their low price and ease of operation have made them popular for decades. They are not afraid of temperature changes, they ignite instantly and do not contain dangerous mercury vapors.

They produce lamps of varying power from 25 to However, the number of working hours for such lamps is low, only 1000, and electricity consumption is much higher than that of energy-saving analogues. Over time, due to the vapors released during operation, the glass of the lamp becomes cloudy and loses its brightness. Therefore, they are unprofitable, and over time they are abandoned. Thus, in many European countries their production and sale have been discontinued and prohibited by law.

Reflector lamps

Reflective incandescent lamps have also found their use. They resemble a regular incandescent lamp in many ways, the only difference being the silver-plated surface. This is used to create directional lighting at a specific point, for example, on a shop window or billboard. They are marked R50, R63, and R80, where the number indicates the diameter. They are easy to use, equipped with a threaded base in standard sizes E14 or E27.

Fluorescent lamps

As you know, about 15% of all generated electricity is needed to operate lighting devices. Agree, this is a lot. To reduce this indicator, a transition to more economical light sources is necessary. According to current legislation, since 2014, the power of lighting lamps should not exceed 25 W. The usual incandescent lamps have been replaced by energy-saving fluorescent lamps, which consume five times less electricity, while the level of illumination remains the same. What are they? This is a white glass flask, coated on the inside with a phosphor and containing an inert gas with a small amount of mercury vapor. The collision of electrons with mercury vapor produces ultraviolet radiation, and this, in turn, is converted into the light that we are used to seeing due to the phosphor.

The service life of such lamps is about a year, or 10,000 hours of continuous operation. But lighting lamps of this type have one significant drawback: they contain mercury. Therefore, they require very careful use and special disposal conditions. They should not be dropped or simply thrown into the trash can - because, as you know, mercury vapor, even in small quantities, is very dangerous. In addition, when they get into the air, they do not dissolve, but hang around, poisoning everything around them. Thus, the amount of mercury vapor from one broken lamp is approximately 50 mg 3 with an acceptable vapor concentration level of 0.01 mg/m 3 .

Another disadvantage of such lamps: the color of some of them is unpleasant to the eye, their lighting is quite aggressive. There is a solution: when choosing a lamp, you should take into account its color temperature. It is measured in Kelvin (K). Thus, a softer, warmer shade is given by lamps marked 2700K - 3000K; this indicator is most optimal for human eyes when working indoors, since it is closest to natural sunlight.

Application of fluorescent lamps

Among the huge number of electric lamps, there are those whose main task is to work continuously for many hours in a row. They are used in certain types of premises: hospitals, supermarkets, warehouses, offices. It is believed that their light is closest to natural, hence the name: fluorescent lamps.

Lamps are produced in the form of an elongated glass tube with contact electrodes along the edges. They have also found application at home. They are used as the main light source on the ceiling or mounted on the walls as an additional light source. Very convenient, for example, in the kitchen, above the work surface when directional lighting is needed, or as decorative lighting in niches, under shelves and pictures, for lighting aquariums or heating indoor plants in the cold season. They operate from a regular network and do not require special current converters. Such lamps are considered energy-saving, since compared to an old-style incandescent lamp they practically do not heat up, consume up to 10 times less energy, and their service life is about 10,000 hours of continuous operation. But there is one nuance: such lighting is usually used indoors at a temperature of 15-25 degrees. At lower temperatures they simply will not work. In addition to white and yellow, such lamps can emit other shades: blue, red, green, blue, ultraviolet. The choice of color depends on the purpose and area of application.

Halogen lamps

Today, more than one type of lamps is used that consume half as much electricity as their predecessors. Such lamps are classified as energy-saving. These are halogen lighting lamps, widely used in daily life. Thanks to their compact size, they are convenient to use in lighting fixtures such as floor lamps, sconces, ceiling lamps with a non-standard shade, and for decorative built-in lighting.

To fill the bulb of such a lamp, a mixture of special gases with bromine or iodine vapor is used. When the device is connected to the network, the filament (tungsten filament) heats up and gives off a glow. Unlike a conventional light bulb, here tungsten does not settle on the walls of the bulb when heated, but when combined with gas it gives a brighter and longer glow, up to 4000 hours. Such lamps emit ultraviolet rays, which are very harmful to the eyes. Therefore, high-quality lamps have a special protective coating. They are very sensitive to voltage surges and can fail very quickly.

Energy-saving lamps

Today, universal and energy-efficient light sources are considered to be those that use several times less energy to operate, without reducing the power of the generated flow. Such as, for example, energy-saving lamps intended for residential and office premises. They are versatile and can be used in lighting fixtures different types.

Characteristics of this type of lighting lamps: electricity consumption is several times lower than that of incandescent lamps, lasts up to 10 times longer, does not heat up, does not flicker, does not hum, is quite durable and does not contain hazardous components.

The disadvantages include the following: slow heating (up to 2 minutes), operation at a temperature of at least 15 degrees. They cannot be used outdoors in open fixtures.

Main advantages of LEDs

But LED or LED lamps are considered one of the most beneficial in terms of energy savings. Translated from English LED - light emitting diode - “light emitting diode”. The luminous efficiency of such lamps is 60-100 Lm/W, and the average service life is 30,000-50,000 hours. At the same time, modern lighting lamps of this type do not heat up and are completely safe to use. Well, if one of the light bulbs burns out, this will not affect the operation of the entire mechanism, it will continue to work.

Their color temperature is quite varied - from soft yellow to cool white. The choice of color depends on the use of the room and the preferences of the owner. So, for example, for an office it is better to choose bright white with a mark of 6400K, for a children's room natural lighting is suitable, not so aggressive, 4200K, but for a bedroom - a slightly yellowish tint, 2700K.

And one more plus: they are free from the main disadvantage of fluorescent lamps: humming and flickering, and the eyes are very comfortable in such lighting. They operate from a regular 220 W network and are equipped with a standard E27 and E14 socket.

Using LEDs in everyday life

Interestingly, a dozen years ago there was no such thing as LED lamps for the home. Only a car mechanic could tell you how to choose and install them - after all, they were used mainly on the car’s dashboard and light indicators. Today, using them at home has become so commonplace that we don’t even think about choosing between LED lamps and old-style lamps, the choice is so obvious and not in favor of the latter. The main point: in LED lamps the current is constant, so heating costs are minimal. Consequently, they do not heat up and, like fluorescent lamps, can last for many years in a row. Even despite their high cost, they are beneficial to use. By consuming less energy, these lamps help reduce your monthly electricity bill. By the way, when choosing LED lamps for your home, you should take into account this difference in power. There is one secret. You need to know the power consumed by a general-purpose lighting lamp and divide it by 8. For example, if you change a regular 100 W lamp, then 100: 8 = 12.5. This means you need an LED lamp with a power of 12 W or more.

One more no less important indicator- such lamps have different This indicator determines how comfortable the lighting will be provided by an LED lighting lamp in the room. Of the existing shades of white light, the most optimal is the shade in the range of 2600-3200 K and 3700-4200 K. This light is soft, closest to natural sunlight and pleasing to the eye. An indicator of 6000 K gives a very cool white tint, and less than 2600 K gives an oppressive yellow. Such shades are harmful to the eyes, a person gets tired quickly, headaches may appear and vision may deteriorate. Therefore, it is very important to purchase only high-quality products; the consultant in the store will advise you, and also provide all the necessary quality certificates.

Whatever one may say, an LED lamp is beneficial in many ways.

It consumes several times less electricity.

It does not heat up during operation, which makes it possible to use it with flammable materials, for example, in cornices, false ceilings. A large number of Such lamps do not overheat the air in the room.

Such lamps do not burn out, but over time only lose their brightness, up to about 30%.

Long service life, up to 15 years.

So, having an idea of what types of light bulbs there are, knowing their main characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, you can safely go to the nearest store. But there is one more important point, without which even a simple replacement of a burnt-out lamp will be impossible. After all, in order to select a lamp for a lighting fixture, you need to know what type of base it is. Using the base, the lamp is attached to the socket, and it is this socket that supplies electric current to the light bulb.

Choosing the right base

Metal or ceramics are used to make the base. And inside there are contacts that transmit electric current to the working elements of the device. Each lighting fixture is equipped with one or more sockets for mounting lamps. It is important that the base of the lamp you purchase matches the socket. Otherwise it won't work.

Despite the variety of types of electric lamp bases, two types are more often used in everyday life: threaded and pin.

A threaded base is also called a screw base. The name accurately conveys the method of connecting it to the lamp socket. It is screwed into lighting lamps; for this purpose, a thread is applied to its surface. The letter E is used for marking. This type is used in many types of lamps in household appliances. These plinths vary in size. Thus, when marking the base, after the Latin letter E, the manufacturer must indicate the diameter of the threaded connection. In everyday life, sockets of two sizes are most often used - E14 and E27. But there are also more powerful lighting lamps, for example, for street lighting. They use an E40 base. The size of threaded connections remains unchanged for many decades. Even now, you can easily replace a burnt-out conventional light bulb in an antique chandelier with a more economical LED one. The dimensions of the base and cartridge are exactly the same. But in America and Canada other parameters are adopted. Since their network voltage is 110V, in order to avoid using European-style light bulbs, the diameter of the base is different: E12, E17, E26 and E39.

Another type of base used in everyday life is the pin type. It is attached to the cartridge using two metal pins. They act as contacts that transmit electricity to the light bulb. The pins differ in diameter and distance between them. For marking, use the Latin letter G, followed by a digital designation of the gap between the pins. These are G9 and G13.

Now you can safely begin the repair. And even though only specialists can remodel or build new walls, you can easily handle the selection and replacement of electric lamps on your own.

A lamp is a lighting device that redistributes the light of a lamp indoors and makes angular concentration luminous flux. It must effectively diffuse light and illuminate buildings, interior spaces and the surrounding landscape. Lamps, depending on their type, can perform both lighting and light-signaling functions. Inside there can be an incandescent lamp or a discharge lamp; mixed light lamps and LED lamps are also used. There are stationary and mobile, portable lamps. They can be powered from the mains or from batteries. Recently, the industry has increasingly been producing lamps with the ability to adjust light characteristics.

Chandeliers are most often used indoors. These are pendant ceiling lamps. They consist of several lamps or candlesticks, and also include some elements to diffuse the light. Depending on the switching method, all lamps or combinations of lamps may light up. increasingly equipped with remote controls. This is very convenient because you can switch combinations of lamps without having to stand at the switch. Dimmers that smoothly switch the light are also often used. Lamps not only illuminate rooms, but also perform decorative functions.

- This is a pendant lamp attached to the wall. Such devices replace chandeliers in small rooms. For example, if the room is small and has low ceilings, then there is no point in hanging a chandelier, but a sconce saves the situation. At the same time, sconces can illuminate individual sections of the walls and, therefore, divide the room into sectors, which is used quite often in modern design. Sconces create a romantic atmosphere and are used simply as room decoration.

In modern rooms, floor lamps - floor or table lamps - are still often used. They usually have a tall stand with a lampshade to protect from direct light. It turns out that dim, diffused light does not harm the eyes. Floor lamps are also used to create a cozy, friendly atmosphere. Floor lamps can be either portable or stationary. There are floor lamps, the length of the stand of which can be changed, as well as the intensity of the light flux. There is not necessarily one light source - there can be several. There are special floor lamps for the street.

Incandescent lamps are used as a direct light source. Depending on the purpose, incandescent lamps can be divided into:
general purpose incandescent lamps (designed for general, local and decorative lighting);

decorative incandescent lamps (produced in special flasks);
incandescent lamps for local lighting (designed for safe voltage, often used in hand-held lamps);
illumination lamps (usually have low power);
mirror incandescent lamps (have a specially shaped bulb covered with a special reflective layer);
incandescent signal lamps (used in signaling devices);
transport incandescent lamps (a wide group of lamps for working in different vehicles);
incandescent switch lamps (used for operation in various indicator panels).

Currently, fluorescent lamps are increasingly used. They are a gas-discharge light source, where visible light is emitted by a phosphor that glows when exposed to ultraviolet light. Such lamps have a luminous efficiency many times greater than incandescent lamps, and this is the reason for the growing popularity of fluorescent lamps.
Chandeliers also use semiconductor elements that can change light characteristics depending on the strength of the current passing through them. There are LEDs that can change light when exposed to current. Their main function in lamps is decorative.

The phenomenon of the stroboscopic effect is the use of lamp switching circuits in such a way that neighboring lamps receive voltage with a phase shift t. The protective angle of the lamp is the angle enclosed between the horizontal of the lamp passing through the filament body and the line connecting the extreme point of the filament body with the opposite edge of the reflector. where h is the distance from the lamp filament body to the level of the lamp outlet...

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Electrical lighting and networks. Chapter I

Section I

Electric light sources and lighting devices

1.1. Requirements for lighting installations

Towards lighting industrial enterprises the following requirements apply:

sufficient brightness of the working surface;
constancy of lighting;
limitation of light flux pulsation;
limiting blindness;
favorable distribution of brightness in the field of view.

Sufficient brightness of the working surfaceis a necessary condition for ensuring the normal functioning of the human eye.

The amount of illumination of the workplace is set depending on the accuracy of the production operation being performed. The more precise the work, the smaller the objects of discrimination and the further these objects are located from the worker, the higher the level of illumination should be.

However, the level of illumination is determined not only by the size of the objects of discrimination and their distance to the worker’s eye, but also by the contrast of the objects of discrimination with the background, as well as the degree of lightness of the background, i.e., the surface of the workpiece.

Constant illuminationin the workplace is a prerequisite in a lighting installation.

Fluctuations in illumination on the working surface may be a consequence of voltage fluctuations in the lighting network or swinging of local lighting fixtures freely suspended on current supply wires.

Fluctuations in illumination cause visual fatigue. Studies have shown that fluctuations in illumination occur when the voltage amplitude changes by ±4% of the nominal value.

Limiting pulsation of light flux.Fluorescent lamps operating in alternating current networks, as well as any other gas-discharge light sources, are characterized by the presence of fluctuations in the luminous flux over time, determined by the inertia-free emission of an electric discharge.

Fluctuations in the light flux are created by the so-calledstrobe effect. The stroboscopic effect disrupts the correct perception of moving objects by the eye.

A sufficient measure to combat pulsation of the light flux, i.e., the phenomenon of the stroboscopic effect, is to use lamp switching circuits in such a way that neighboring lamps receive voltage with a phase shift, i.e., switching lamps in multi-lamp luminaires on different phases; or the use of a two-lamp circuit, where one lamp is connected in series with inductive reactance, and the other in series with inductive and capacitive reactance.

Limitation of blindness.The level of glare created by lamps located in the field of view is determined by their brightness and luminous intensity towards the observer's eye, the height of their location above the line of sight and the brightness of the surrounding background.

In accordance with this, the limitation of glare in the current SNiP comes down to regulating the minimum permissible height of a lamp suspension above the floor of the illuminated room, depending on the protective angle of the lamp, the nature of the diffuser and the power of the light source, which determine its brightness and luminous intensity towards the observer’s eye.

Protective angle of the luminairethe angle between the horizontal line passing through the filament body of the lamp and the line connecting the extreme point of the filament body with the opposite edge of the reflector.

Lamps with a protective angle of less than 10° without diffusers and with lamps in a transparent bulb are not allowed for general lighting of premises.

The value of the protective angle can be determined from the relationship:

, (1.1)

where h distance from the lamp filament to the level of the lamp outlet, mm; R radius of the luminaire outlet, mm; r radius of the lamp filament ring, mm.

In local lighting installations, special attention should be paid to eliminating glare that occurs on surfaces with directional reflection, which is achieved by appropriate choice of placement of lamps to prevent reflected rays from entering the worker’s eyes.

Distribution of brightness in the field of view.In practical lighting conditions, large uneven distribution of brightness in the field of view is unacceptable, which can occur if the brightness of the working surface differs sharply from the brightness of the walls and ceiling of the room.

To maintain a satisfactory distribution of brightness in the surrounding space, general lighting lamps must create at the level of the working surface at least 10% of the illumination normalized for this type of work with combined lighting, but not more than 30%.

Uneven distribution of brightness in the field of view can be caused by falling shadows arising from nearby objects, the worker’s body, or uneven illumination of the working surface. The uneven distribution of brightness over the working surface is not regulated by SNiP, however, when designing a lighting installation, one must strive to eliminate shading and uniformly distribute illumination within the working surface.

1.2. General information about light quantities

One of the main quantities characterizing a light source is luminous flux.

Luminous flux Fthe power of light energy or visible radiation, assessed by the luminous sensation it produces on the human eye.

Luminous flux unit lumen [lm].

A point source whose luminous intensity is 1 candela [cd] in solid angle equal to 1 steradian [cf], emits a luminous flux equal to 1 lumen:

, (1.2)

where I luminous intensity, cd; F luminous flux, lm; ω solid angle, cf.

Solid angle part of space, which is the union of all rays emanating from a given point (vertex of an angle) and intersecting some surface (which is called the surface subtending a given solid angle). The boundary of a solid angle is a certain conical surface.

The solid angle is measured by the ratio of the area of that part of the sphere with the center at the vertex of the angle, which is cut out by this solid angle, to the square of the radius of the sphere: Ω = S/r2.

Steradian unit of measurement of solid angles. The steradian is equal to the solid angle with the vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r , cutting out a surface of area from a sphere r 2.

Figure 1.1 Graphic representation of solid angle

at 1 Wed

Luminous Intensity I characterizes the spatial density of the emitted light flux.

A luminous intensity equal to 1 candela is emitted from an area of 1/600000 m 2 cross section of the full emitter in the direction perpendicular to this section at the emitter temperature equal to the solidification temperature of platinum at a pressure of 101325 MPa.

Solid angle ω in 1 sr corresponds to a part of space bounded by a conical surface with a vertex in the center of the sphere and a section cut out on its surface equal to the square of the radius of the sphere:

, (1.3)

where S area of the sphere section cut out by a solid angle, m 2 ; r radius of the sphere, m.

Illumination E surface density of the incident luminous flux, which is determined by the ratio of the luminous flux incident on a surface to the area of this surface:

. (1.4)

Illuminance unit lux [lx].

Luminosity R surface density of the emitted light flux, determined from the relation

, (1.5)

where R luminosity, lm/m 2 ; F luminous flux, lm; S And radiating surface area, m2.

Brightness L surface density of luminous intensity in a given direction.

, (1.6)

where I α luminous intensity in the direction of angle α, cd; dScosα area of projection of the luminous body onto a plane perpendicular to the direction measured from the normal to the surface of the emitted body, m 2 ; L α brightness, cd/m 2.

1.3. Electric light sources

According to the method of generating light, all electrical sources are divided into

temperature (for example, incandescent lamps, including halogen);
luminescent (cold glow; for example, gas discharge).

The main characteristics of light sources are the following nominal values:

voltage;
power;
light flow;
luminous efficiency;
average duration of operation (burning).

Luminous efficiency γlamp is determined by the ratio of its emitted luminous flux F l to consumed electrical power P l:

. (1.6)

The unit of measurement for luminous efficiency is lm/W.

The luminous efficiency of the main series lamps ranges from 7…19 lm/W.

Incandescent lamps(LN) consist of a base and a glass bulb, inside of which there is a tungsten filament.

General purpose incandescent lamps are produced in the power range of 151500 W for voltage from 12 to 220 V.

Lamps are divided into vacuum (V) with a power of 1525 W and gas-filled (B, D) with a power of 40 to 1000 W. Gas-filled lamps (B, D) after pumping out the air are filled with argon with the addition of 12...16% nitrogen. The letter B denotes the spiral design of the glow element. Light output with krypton filling is 10...20% more than an argon-filled lamp. The cost of krypton is higher than the cost of argon, so krypton-filled lamps (BK) are more expensive than argon-filled lamps (B, D). The need to vacuum the lamps is caused by the fact that the tungsten filament heats up to a temperature of 2000...2500 K , i.e. to the temperature at which tungsten oxidizes in the presence of oxygen. Lamps rated at 40 W or more are filled with gas, which reduces the intensity of the filament atomization even at higher temperatures. The tungsten filament can be rolled into a spiral, bi-spiral (B) and other shapes.

Most incandescent lamps are made of clear glass. To create more diffused light, lamps with cylinders made of frosted, opal or milk glass are produced. Their light output is less than that of lamps with a transparent bulb. Lamps in light-diffusing bulbs have the following letter indexing: MT frosted; ML dairy; О opal.

Local lighting lamps for voltages of 12, 24 and 36 V with a power of up to 100 W are widely used.

The average duration of LN combustion at rated voltage is determined at 1000 hours. Their service life is reduced under high voltage conditions and increases when operating under low voltage conditions. Currently, lamps are produced for voltages within certain limits, for example, 215...225, 220...230, 230...240 V. Lamps for 230...240, 235...245 V are used on landings, in corridors for emergency lighting, because There may be increased voltage at night and during the day. But it is not advisable to use them at a stable voltage of 220 V due to a significant reduction in their luminous flux.

The simplicity of switching circuits makes incandescent lamps reliable light sources in local lighting fixtures, emergency lighting installations and some other cases.

Fluorescent lamps(LL) refer to gas-discharge lamps, in which visible radiation occurs under the influence of an electric discharge in gases and metal vapors.

Fluorescent lamps consist of a tube with electrodes at its ends. A thin layer of phosphor is applied to the inner surface of the glass tube. Each electrode consists of a tungsten filament and two nickel whiskers. Two contacts are brought out from the electrodes. The lamp bulb is filled with argon under low pressure. To create mercury vapor, a small drop of mercury is introduced into it.

Low-pressure tubular LLs differ from LNs in all characteristics.

Luminous efficacy 75 lm/W. The average operating (burning) duration of all types of LL is at least 12,000 hours, i.e. significantly longer than LL. The luminous efficiency and efficiency of LL are also several times higher than that of LL.

Based on the color of the radiation, low-pressure tubular luminaires are divided into: LB white lamps; LCB cold white; LTB warm white lamps; LD daytime color; LDC daytime color for correct color rendering.

LLs are designed to operate at ambient temperatures +5…+50 C. At a temperature less than +10 The lamp does not light up. To ignite and burn lamps, it is necessary to connect ballasts (ballasts) in series with them. Ballasts are divided into inductive (I), capacitive (E) and compensated (K); for devices with parallel, reduced (P) and especially low (PP) noise levels.

Direct LL are available in power: 4; 6; 8; 15; 20; thirty; 40; 65; 80; 150 W. In networks with voltages of 127 and 220 V, LLs from 15 to 80 W are used. LLs with a power of 30, 40, 65, 80 W can only operate in a 220 V network; they are also the most common in fluorescent lighting. In addition, lamps with a power of 18, 36 and 58 W are used. When marking lamps, the power is indicated by a number, for example, 40 W LL: LB 40, LTB 40, LDTs 40, LHB 40. According to their shape, LLs are classified into the following types (except direct): U -shaped 880 W; W -shaped 30 W; ring 2040 W.

The disadvantages of fluorescent lighting include:

possibility of stroboscopic effect;
duration of the ignition process (several seconds);
low power factor;
higher costs compared to the costs of LN lighting;
a sharp reduction in lamp life with frequent switching on.

However, despite these disadvantages, fluorescent lighting has found wide application, since LLs provide greater light output with lower power consumption.

DRL lamps four-electrode high-pressure arc lamps with phosphor coating on the bulb.

Such lamps are manufactured within the power range of 802000 W and have a luminous efficacy of 40...60 lm/W.Service life up to 12,000 hours, by the end of the service life the luminous flux is reduced to 70% of the original. DRLs are switched on through single-lamp inductive ballasts, the power loss of which is about 10%.Lamps with a power of 2000 W are switched on at a linear voltage of the system 380/220 V, the rest at 220 V. The process of lighting up the lamps after switching on lasts 57 minutes. At temperatures from 10 to +25 °C and above, the lamps do not lose their qualities.

The advantage of DRL compared to LL is their compactness with high unit power.

A significant disadvantage is the poor color rendition of their radiation, which allows the use of DRL lamps only in the absence of any requirements for color discrimination, as well as significant pulsations of the light flux.

DKsT lamps air-cooled xenon tube arc lamps. They operate without ballasts, but are ignited using a special starting device.

Power 5; 10; 20 and 50 kW. Luminous efficacy 20…45 lm/W. Service life 300...750 hours, but with voltage stabilization it can reach 3000 hours. 5 kW lamps are connected to 220 V in pairs and series, 10 kW lamps are connected to a 220 V network; more powerful to a 380 V network.

The scope of application is limited by the excess of ultraviolet rays in their spectrum that is harmful to people. This drawback is eliminated in lamps in a doped quartz bulb (DKsTL). The pulsations of the light flux in DKsT lamps are especially large. Ambient temperature has no effect.

Metallogenic lamps MGL and DRI(metallogenic and sodium) are produced with a capacity of 250; 400; 700; 1000; 2000 W. Lamps with a power of 2000 W are connected to a 380 V network. Light output is up to 100 lm/W. Service life from 1000 to 5000 hours. The lamps are connected to the network through ballasts, consisting of a choke and an ignition device UIZU, which produces high-voltage pulses.

DNAT has a luminous efficiency of 180 lm/W. HPS lamps only produce yellow light, so they are only suitable for illuminating suburban highways. Service life 20,000 hours. They are connected to the network through single-phase inductive ballasts.

Application of different types of electric light sources:

For general lighting of industrial premises with a height of 8 meters or more, they are mainly usedgas discharge lamps. Incandescent lampsare mainly used in rooms where rough work is carried out or general supervision of the operation of equipment is carried out (basements, tunnels, storerooms, passages between machine foundations, etc.) or in rooms where the use of gas discharge lamps is not possible for any reason . Used for local lighting LN and LL (with high requirements for color rendering and when working with shiny surfaces). Must be used for public buildings LL , and in corridors, wardrobes, foyers, bathrooms, pantries, basements, attics, etc. they are used LN.

For self-study:

1.4. Lighting

A short-range lighting device is called lamp.

The lamp consists of two main parts: a light source and a device that redistributes the light flux of the source in space (reflector, diffuser, etc.). In addition, the luminaire includes fittings: wires, lamp holders or sockets, fastening parts and ballasts (ballasts).

The cost-effectiveness, quality and ease of use of a lighting installation depend on the choice of luminaires. The efficiency and quality of lighting are determined by their lighting characteristics, reliability and operational requirements - by design.

Lamps are characterized by a number of characteristics:

by the nature of light distribution;
according to the shape of the light intensity curve;
by type of light source;
by installation method;
in terms of protection from the influence of the external environment;
according to intended purpose, etc.

GOST 1767782 “Lamps. Are common technical specifications» provides for the classification of lamps according to specified conditions.

The complete lighting characteristics of a lamp are formed by:

from its light distribution class;
from the shape of the luminous intensity curve in any meridians (i.e., in vertical planes) and the direction of maximum luminous intensity;
from the degree of protection against dust and water.

The listed parameters characterizing the lamp are determined by reference books: classification of lamps by light distribution ; classification of luminaires according to the shape of the luminous intensity curve ; minimum permissible degree of protection of luminaires .

Structure symbol lamps according to GOST 1767782.

First letter light source:

H incandescent lamps;

C lamps (mirror, diffuse);

And quartz halogen (incandescent);

L straight tubular fluorescent;

F figured luminescent;

R mercury type DRL;

G mercury type DRI, DRISH;

F sodium type DNAT;

B bactericidal;

K xenon tubular.

The second letter is , how to install the lamp:

C suspended;

P ceiling;

B built-in;

D attached;

B wall;

Н desktop, support;

T floor, crowning;

K cantilever, end;

Р manual;

G head.

The third letter is the purpose of the lamp:

P for industrial and production buildings;

О for public buildings;

B for residential buildings;

У for outdoor lighting;

R for mines and mines;

T for film and television studios.

Then follow:

a number indicating the series number (0199);
number of lamps in the lamp (if more than one);
a number indicating the lamp power in watts;
a number indicating the lamp modification number (001999);
letters and numbers indicating the climatic version and the category of placement of the luminaire.

1.5. Standardization of artificial lighting

The level of standardized illumination for production and auxiliary premises is established according to SNiP 23-05-95, taking into account the level of visual work, the selected light source, the lighting system used, the absence or presence of natural light. Illumination standards are established during design according to industry regulations, and in their absence, in accordance with SNiP 23-05-95.

If there are factors that are important when choosing illumination, the illumination selected according to the standards is increased or decreased by one step. The standards are based on the illumination scale:

0,2; 0,3; 0,5; 1; 2; 3; 5; 7; 10; 20; 30; 50; 75; 100; 150; 200; 300; 400;

500; 600; 750; 1000; 1250; 2000; 2500; 3000; 3500; 4000; 4500; 5000.

Increased factors include:

distance of the working surface from the eyes by 1 m;
continuous nature of work;
increased risk of injury;
increased sanitary requirements;
lack or insufficiency of natural light;
the purpose of the premises for work or education of teenagers.

Decreasing factors:

short stay of people in the room;
availability of equipment that does not require constant monitoring.

Illumination standards for various cases are given, for example, in.

For self-study:

List of references to which there are links

1. Shpiganovich, A. N. Electrical engineering of enterprises, organizations and institutions. Electrical lighting and networks [Text]: textbook in 2 volumes. T. 1. Lighting devices and networks / A. N. Shpiganovich, V. I. Zatsepina, E. P. Zatsepin. Lipetsk: Publishing House of Leningrad State Technical University, 2009. 320 p.

2. Kozlovskaya, V. B. Electric lighting [Text]: reference book / V. B. Kozlovskaya, V. N. Radkevich, V. N. Satsukevich. Minsk: Technoperspective, 2007. 255 p.

3. Knorring, G. M. Reference book for the design of electric lighting [Text] / G. M. Knorring, I. M. Fadin, V. N. Sidorov. St. Petersburg: Energoatomizdat. St. Petersburg branch, 1992. 448 p.

PAGE 9

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