Functions of the Russian language in the modern world. Abstract of the functions of language Language and its functions

The difference between speech and language

The difference between speech and language is that speech is an individual mental phenomenon, while language as a system is a social phenomenon. Speech– dynamic, mobile, situationally determined. Language– a balanced system of internal relations. It is constant and stable, invariant in its basic laws. Elements of language are organized into a system according to a formal-semantic principle and function in speech on a communicative-semantic basis. In speech, general linguistic patterns always appear specifically, situationally and contextually determined. Knowledge about the language system, which is formulated in the form of rules, can be acquired theoretically, while mastering speech requires appropriate practice, as a result of which speech skills and abilities are created.

The original unit of language is a word, and original unit of speech- a sentence or phrase. For theoretical purposes of the language being studied, complete knowledge of its system is important. For practical purposes, in secondary school it is necessary to master such a volume of language material that is sufficient for limited communicative purposes and realistic for mastering it in given conditions.

Speech- is the use of language in communication. The starting point of speech acts is a speech situation when a person has a need or need to perform one or another speech act. In this case, verbal communication occurs in any specific conditions: in one place or another, with one or another participant in the communicative act. In every speech situation, one or another function of the language is implemented in order to achieve the goal for which the communicative act is performed. So, speech can be characterized as follows: it is a concrete, particular, random, individual, non-systemic, variable phenomenon.

Language- this is a specific sign system that a person uses to communicate with other people. Thanks to language, man has a universal means of storing and transmitting information, and without this the development of human society would not be possible. A system of phonetic, lexical, and grammatical means that are a tool for expressing thoughts, feelings, and expressions of will, serving as the most important means of communication between people.

Different scientists identify different numbers of functions of language, since language has many purposes in human society. The functions of language are not equal. However, the main function is already reflected in the definition of the language. Language– the main means of communication (or communication). IN speech activity person language functions are combined in different combinations. In each specific speech message, one of several functions may predominate.

Language functions represented by the following set: communicative(ensuring mutual understanding between people) - the function of being the basis of thought; expressive(express attitude towards what is being expressed). The dominant position of the communicative function is determined by the frequency of language implementation precisely for the purpose of communication, which determines its basic properties.

Availability triple function of language: expressions, appeals, representations. In earlier terminology: expression, motivation, representation. They represent the actual different purposes of speech utterances: representative- message, expressive- expression of emotions, appellative- motivation to action. These functions are not only hierarchically correlated (the dominant role of the representative function), but also the presence of linguistic implementation with the complete predominance of one of them is allowed.

Six functions are defined as orientations, attitudes towards six elements of the situation. First three: referential(communicative) - orientation to the context (referent), expressive(emotive) - orientation towards the addresser (an expression of the speaker’s attitude towards what he is talking about), conative(appellative) - orientation towards the addressee. There are also additional ones that can be derived from the above triad (and in accordance with the speech situation model): phatic(focus on contact), metalinguistic(focus on code, language), poetic(message focus). The verbal structure of a message depends primarily on the predominant function.

Functions of language and speech:

1) in relation to humanity as a whole ( communicative function as unity communication And generalizations);

2) in relation to historically specific societies, groups of communicating (functions as spheres use language and speech: functions of servicing everyday communication; communication in the field of primary, secondary, higher education, communication in the business sphere, in the field of science, in the field of production, in the field of socio-political and government activities, in the field of mass communication, in the field of religion, in the field of interethnic, regional and international communication);

3) in relation to the components of the current communication situation: representative, expressive (emotive), contact-making (phatic), impact function, metalinguistic And poetic, or aesthetic;

4) in relation to the goals and results of utterances in specific speech acts, or acts of communication (message, expression of internal state, request for information, directive function; specification of these functions in the theory of speech acts).

The most fundamental are communicative function and function of the way of expressing thoughts (cognitive And cognitive functions). The communicative function is divided into: 1) function communication– as the main physical language, one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in mutual exchange statements members of the language community; 2) message function - as one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in the transmission of some logical content; 3) the function of influence, the implementation of which is: a) voluntary function - the expression of the will of the speaker; b) expressive function – imparting expressiveness to the statement; c) emotive function - expression of feelings, emotions.

3. The concept of “speech culture”. Main features of cultural speech

A culture of speech- knowledge of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, word usage, grammar and stylistics). Used in modern science in two main meanings: 1) socially and historically conditioned modern speech culture of society; 2) a set of requirements for the quality of oral and written speech of native speakers of a literary language from the point of view of a socially perceived linguistic ideal, the taste of a certain era. In mastering speech culture, they usually distinguish two stages. The first is associated with students’ mastery of literary and linguistic norms. Mastery of them ensures correct speech, which forms the basis of individual speech speech. The second stage involves the creative application of norms in different communication situations, including speech skills, the ability to choose the most accurate, stylistically and situationally appropriate options.

Literacy - traditional sign"cultural" speech. Signs: correctness, purity, accuracy, expressiveness, logic, relevance, richness.

4. Forms of existence of the national language .

Language is a complex phenomenon and exists in several forms. These include: dialects, vernaculars, jargons and literary language.

Dialects are local dialects of Russia, limited territorially. They exist only in oral speech and are used for everyday communication.

Vernacular speech is the speech of people that does not correspond to the literary norms of the Russian language (ridiculitis, colidor, without a coat, driver).

Jargon is the speech of social and professional groups of people united by common occupations, interests, etc. Jargon is characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology. Sometimes the word argo is used as a synonym for the word jargon. Argo is the speech of the lower classes of society, the criminal world, beggars, thieves and swindlers.

Literary language is the highest form of the national language, processed by masters of words. It has two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is subject to orthoepic and intonation forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of an addressee has no effect, it allows processing and editing.

5. Literary language as the highest form of the national language .

The Russian literary language is the highest form of the national language and the basis of the culture of speech. It serves various spheres of human activity - politics, legislation, culture, verbal art, office work, etc. Many outstanding scientists emphasize the importance of the literary language both for an individual and for an entire nation. It is noteworthy that not only Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, but also Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov and Likhachev emphasized the importance of mastering the norms of the Russian literary language. Wealth, clarity of expression of thought, accuracy testify to the richness of a person’s general culture and the high degree of his professional training.

In scientific linguistic literature, the main features of a literary language are defined:

· Processing,

· Stability,

· Commitment,

· Availability of oral and written forms,

· Standardization,

· Availability of functional styles.

The Russian language exists in two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is vocal, subject to orthoepic and intonation forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of an addressee has no effect, it allows processing and editing.

6. Language norm, its role in the formation and functioning of a literary language .

The founder of the first Russian philological school is Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, who put forward the criterion of historical expediency in streamlining the norms of the literary language. He differentiated the styles of a literary language depending on the stylistic characteristics of linguistic units, defining the norms of a literary language for the first time.

Yakov Karlovich Grot was the first to systematize and theoretically comprehend the set of spelling laws of the literary language. For his normative “dictionary of the Russian language,” a system of grammatical and stylistic notes was developed.

A new stage in the codification of norms is associated with the names of Ushakov, Vinogradov, Vinokurov, Ozhegov, Shcherva. The norms were formed as a result of the selection of linguistic means in the process of communication and become correct and generally binding. The norm is cultivated in print publications, in the media, and in the process of school and professional training.

Codification of a norm - consolidation of it in dictionaries, grammars, textbooks. The norm is relatively stable and systemic, since it includes rules for selecting elements of all levels of the language system. It is mobile and changeable, and can change over time under the influence of spoken language.

The norms of the modern Russian language are enshrined in publications of the Russian Academy of Sciences: various grammars and dictionaries.

The terms normalization and codification are different. Normalization is the process of formation, approval of a norm, its description and ordering by a linguist. Normalizing activity finds its expression in codification literary norm– its recognition and description in the form of rules.

The norms of language are stable and systemic, but at the same time stable. The norms exist on different levels language - phonetic, lexical, grammatical. According to the degree of obligatoryness, a distinction is made between imperative (strictly mandatory norms) and dispositive (implying variants of pronunciation of grammatical and syntactic units). Objective fluctuations in the literary norm are associated with the development of language, when variants are transitional stages from obsolete to new. The norm is one of the most important conditions for the stability, unity and identity of the national language. The norm is dynamic, because it is the result of human activity, enshrined in tradition. Fluctuations in the norm are the result of the interaction of functional styles. The following phenomena are closely related to the development of norms: public life, as anti-normalization and purism.

Anti-normalization is the denial of scientific normalization and codification of language, based on the assertion of the spontaneity of language development.

Purism is the rejection of innovations or their outright prohibition. Purism plays the role of a regulator that protects against borrowing and excessive innovation

7. Norms of orthoepy. Pronunciation of vowels and consonants .

Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special branch of linguistics - orthoepy. Maintaining consistency in pronunciation is important. Spelling errors make it difficult to perceive the content of speech, and pronunciation that corresponds to spelling norms makes it easier and accelerates the process of communication.

The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are deafening and assimilation. In Russian speech, there is a mandatory deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word. We pronounce hle[p] - bread, sa[t] - garden. The consonant g at the end of a word always turns into its paired unvoiced sound k. The exception is the word god.

In the combination of voiced and voiceless consonants, the first of them is likened to the second. If the first of them is voiced, and the second is unvoiced, the first sound is deafened: lo[sh]ka - spoon, pro[p]ka - cork. If the first one is deaf and the second one is voiced, the first sound is voicing: [z]doba - baking, [z]ugit - ruin.

Before the consonants [l], [m], [n], [r], which do not have paired voiceless ones, and before in, there is no assimilation and the words are pronounced as they are written: sve[tl]o, [shv]ryat.

Combinations szh and zzh are pronounced as double hard [zh]: r[zh]at - unclench, [zh]zhiny - with life, fry - [zh]rish.

The combination сч is pronounced as a long soft sound [ш’], just like the sound conveyed in writing by the letter ш: [ш’]астье - happiness, [ш’]т – counting.

The combination zch is pronounced as a long soft sound [sh’]: prika[sh’]ik - clerk, obra[sh’]ik – sample.

The combinations tch and dch are pronounced as a long sound [ch']: dokla[ch']ik - speaker, le[ch']ik - pilot.

The combinations tts and dts are pronounced as a long sound ts: two[ts]at - twenty, zol[ts]e - little gold.

In the combinations stn, zdn, stl, the consonant sounds [t] and [d] drop out: prele[sn]y, po[zn]o, che[sn]y, u[s]livy.

The combination chn is usually pronounced [chn] (al[chn]y, careless [chn]y). Pronunciation [shn] instead of [chn] is required in female patronymics na –ichna: Ilyini[sh]a, Nikiti[sh]a. Some words are pronounced in two ways: bulo[sh]naya and bulo[chn]aya, Mol[sh]ny and molo[chn]y. In some cases, different pronunciation serves to differentiate words semantically: heartbeat - heartfelt friend.

8. Stress norms. Features of Russian accent .

Incorrect stress in words reduces the culture of oral speech. Errors in stress can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. The features and functions of stress are studied by the department of linguistics, accentology. Stress in Russian, unlike other languages, is free, i.e. it can fall on any syllable. In addition, the stress can be movable (if in various forms words fall on the same part) and motionless (if the stress changes place in different forms the same word).

In some words, difficulties in stress exist due to the fact that many do not know their part of speech. For example, the adjective developedОй. This word is used in the sense of “reaching a high degree of development.” But in the Russian language there is a participle rAzvitiy, or developed, formed from the verb to develop. In this case, the emphasis depends on whether it is an adjective or a participle.

The Russian alphabet has the letter ё, which is considered optional. The printing of the letter e instead of ё in literature and official papers led to the fact that in many words they began to pronounce e on the spot: not bile - [zhel]ch, but bile - [zhel]lch, not obstetrician - aku[shor], but obstetrician – aku[Sher]. In some words the emphasis has been shifted: bewitched, underestimated instead of the correct bewitched, underestimated.

9. Pronunciation of borrowed words .

Borrowed words usually obey the orthoepic norms of the modern Russian language and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features.

In an unstressed position, the sound [o] is preserved in words such as m[o]dern, m[o]del, [o]asis. But most borrowed vocabulary obeys the general rules of pronunciation [o] and [a] in unstressed syllables: b[a]kal, k[a]suit, r[a]ryal.

In most borrowed words, the consonants before [e] are softened: ka[t’]et, pa[t’]ephon, [s’]seria, newspaper[z’]eta. But in a number of words of foreign origin, the firmness of the consonants before [e] is preserved: sh[te]psel, s[te]nd, e[ne]rgia. More often, the hardness before [e] is retained by dental consonants: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [r].

10. Functional and semantic types of speech:

description, narration, reasoning. Description can be used in any style of speech, but in a scientific style the description of the subject must be extremely complete, and in an artistic style the emphasis is placed only on the most striking details. Therefore, linguistic means in scientific and artistic style more diverse than in scientific: there are not only adjectives and nouns, but also verbs, adverbs, comparisons, various figurative uses of words are very common.

Examples of descriptions in scientific and artistic style. 1. Apple tree - ranet purple - frost-resistant variety. The fruits are round in shape, 2.5-3 cm in diameter. Fruit weight is 17-23 g. Average juiciness, with a characteristic sweet, slightly astringent taste. 2. The linden apples were large and transparent yellow. If you look through the apple into the sun, it shines through like a glass of fresh linden honey. There were black grains in the middle. You used to shake a ripe apple near your ear and you could hear the seeds rattling.

Narration is a story, a message about an event in its time sequence. The peculiarity of the narrative is that it talks about successive actions. All narrative texts have in common the beginning of the event (commencement), the development of the event, and the end of the event (denouement). The narration can be conducted from a third person. This is the author's story. It can also come from the first person: the narrator is named or designated by the personal pronoun I. Such texts often use verbs in the past perfect form. But in order to give the text expressiveness, others are used simultaneously with them: a verb in the past tense form of the imperfect form makes it possible to highlight one of the actions, indicating its duration; present tense verbs allow you to imagine actions as if they were happening before the eyes of the reader or listener; forms of the future tense with the particle how (how will jump), as well as forms like clap, jump help to convey the swiftness and surprise of a particular action. Narration as a type of speech is very common in genres such as memoirs and letters.

Example of a narration: I began to stroke Yashka’s paw and thought: just like a child’s. And tickled his palm. And when the baby pulls his paw, it hits me on the cheek. I didn’t even have time to blink, and he slapped me in the face and jumped under the table. He sat down and grinned.

Reasoning- this is a verbal presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought. The composition of the argument is as follows: the first part is the thesis, i.e., an idea that must be logically proven, justified or refuted; the second part is the rationale for the thoughts expressed, evidence, arguments supported by examples; the third part is the conclusion, the conclusion. The thesis must be clearly provable, clearly formulated, the arguments must be convincing and in sufficient quantity to confirm the thesis put forward. Between the thesis and arguments (as well as between individual arguments) there should be
be a logical and grammatical connection. For the grammatical connection between the thesis and arguments, introductory words are often used: firstly, secondly, finally, so, therefore, in this way. In argumentative texts, sentences with conjunctions are widely used: however, although, despite the fact that, since.

Example of reasoning: The development of word meanings usually proceeds from the particular (concrete) to the general (abstract). Let's think about the literal meaning of such words as education, disgust, previous. Education literally means “nurturing,” disgust means “turning away” (from an unpleasant person or object), previous means “going ahead.”

Words-terms denoting abstract mathematical concepts: “segment”, “tangent”, “point”, come from very specific verbs of action: cut, touch, stick (poke).

In all these cases, the original concrete meaning takes on a more abstract meaning in the language.

11. Functional styles of the modern Russian language, their interaction .

Functional styles are created as a result of the selection of linguistic means depending on the goals and objectives that are set and solved in the process of communication.

Usually the following functional styles are distinguished: 1) scientific, 2) official business, 3) journalistic, 4) colloquial.

The assignment of words to a certain style is explained by the fact that words that have the same meaning can differ in emotional and stylistic coloring, therefore they are used in different styles (lack - deficit, liar - liar, squander - waste, cry - complain). In everyday dialogue, characteristic of oral speech, predominantly colloquial vocabulary is used. It does not violate the norms of literary speech, but its use is unacceptable in official communication.

The scientific style is characterized by scientific terminology Keywords: pedagogy, society, state, theory, process, structure. Words are used in a direct, nominative meaning, there is no emotionality. The sentences are narrative in nature and predominantly have direct word order.

The peculiarity of the official business style is concise, compact presentation, economical use of language. Typical stable expressions are used (we confirm with gratitude; we inform that; in case of occurrence, etc.). This style is characterized by “dryness” of presentation, lack of expressive means, and the use of words in their literal meaning.

Characteristic Features journalistic style are the relevance of the content, the sharpness and brightness of the presentation, the author's passion. The purpose of the text is to influence the mind and feelings of the reader and listener. A variety of vocabulary is used: terms of literature and art, general literary words, means of speech expression. The text is dominated by detailed stylistic constructions, interrogative and exclamatory sentences are used.

The everyday conversational style is characterized by the use various types sentences, free word order, extremely short sentences, words with evaluative suffixes (week, darling), figurative language.

12. Scientific style, its features, scope of implementation .

Scientific style is a speech system specially adapted for optimal communication between people in the scientific field.

The scientific style has a number of common features that are characteristic of all sciences, which makes it possible to talk about the specifics of the style as a whole. But texts on physics, chemistry, and mathematics cannot but differ from texts on history, philosophy, and cultural studies. In accordance with this, the scientific style has substyles: scientific-popular, scientific-business, scientific-technical, scientific-journalistic, production-technical, educational-scientific.

The scientific style is characterized by a logical sequence of presentation, an ordered system of connections between parts of statements, and the authors’ desire for accuracy, conciseness, and unambiguous expression while maintaining richness of content. The scientific style is characterized by a number of general conditions functioning and linguistic features: 1) preliminary consideration of statements, 2) monologue character, 3) strict selection of linguistic means, 4) attraction to standardized speech.

The original form of existence of scientific speech is written. The written form records information for a long time, and science requires exactly this.

In writing, it is much easier to operate with complex structures that are used in scientific thinking. The written form is more convenient for detecting the slightest inaccuracies, which in scientific communication can lead to the most serious distortions of the truth. The written form makes it possible to access information repeatedly. The oral form also has advantages (synchronicity of mass communication, efficiency of targeting a specific type of addressee, etc.), but it is temporary, while the written form is permanent. The oral form in scientific communication is secondary - a scientific work is first written and then reproduced.

Scientific speech is fundamentally without subtext; subtext contradicts its essence. It is dominated by monologue. Even scientific dialogue is a series of alternating monologues. A scientific monologue takes the form of a work with a thoughtful selection of content, clarity of construction, and optimal speech design.

Scientific speech operates with complex concepts. A concept is a form in which the essential features of an object are conceived. In the terminology of each science, several layers can be distinguished: 1) general categorical concepts that reflect the most general objects of reality: objects, characteristics, connections (system, function, element). These concepts constitute the general conceptual fund of science; 2) concepts common to a number of related sciences that have common objects of study (abscissa, protein, vacuum, vector). Such concepts serve as a connecting link between sciences of the same profile (humanitarian, natural, technical, etc.) and they can be defined as profile-special. 3) highly specialized concepts that are characteristic of one science and reflect the specificity of the aspect of research (in biology - biogenic, bothria, etc.).

Along with distinguishing types according to the degree of generality, it is also advisable to distinguish types according to the degree of volume and breadth of the concept. The broadest concepts of a given science, which display the most general and essential features and properties, are called categories. Categories constitute the conceptual core of science. From them comes a network of concepts of an ever narrower scope. In general, they constitute a system of special terminology for this science.

13. Formal - business style. Genre diversity, scope of implementation .

Official - business style serves the sphere of administrative and legal activities. It satisfies the requirements of society in documenting various acts of state, social, political, economic life, business relations between the state and organizations, as well as between members of society in the official sphere of their communication.

Official - business style is implemented in texts of various genres: charter, law, order, complaint, recipe, statement. The genres of this style perform informational, prescriptive and ascertaining functions in various fields of activity. In this regard, the main form of implementation is written.

The general stylistic features of official ice speech are:

· Precision of presentation, not allowing the possibility of misinterpretation, detail of presentation;

· Stereotyping, standard presentation;

· Obligatory, prescriptive nature of the presentation.

In addition, they note such features of the official business style as: formality, rigor of expression of thoughts, objectivity and logic, characteristic of scientific speech.

The official business style system consists of 3 types of language means:

A) Having the appropriate functional and stylistic coloring (plaintiff, defendant, protocol, identity card, job description.

B) Neutral, interstyle, as well as general book language means.

C) Linguistic means that are neutral in stylistic coloring, but have become a sign of an official business style (raise a question, express disagreement).

Many verbs are used in the infinitive form, which is associated with the prescriptive function of style. When naming a person, nouns are more often used rather than pronouns, designating a person based on the action (applicant, respondent, tenant). Nouns denoting positions and titles are used in the masculine form, even when referring to female persons (defendant Proshina). The use of verbal nouns and participles is typical: arrival of transport, service to the population, replenishment of the budget.

In official business style texts, antonyms are often used, synonyms are rarely used. Typical are Difficult words, formed from two or more bases: tenant, employer, the above-mentioned. Accuracy, unambiguity and standardization of the means used are the main features of official business speech.

14. Journalistic style, its features, genres, sphere of implementation.

The journalistic style of speech is a functional type of literary language and is widely used in various spheres of public life: newspapers, magazines, on television, in public political speeches, in the activities of parties and public associations.

The linguistic features of this style are affected by the breadth of the topic: there is a need to include special vocabulary that requires explanation. On the other hand, a number of topics are in the center of public attention, and vocabulary related to these topics takes on a journalistic connotation. Among such topics, we should highlight politics, economics, education, healthcare, criminology, and military topics.

Vocabulary characteristic of the journalistic style can be used in other styles: official - business, scientific. But in a journalistic style, it acquires a special function - to create a picture of events and convey to the addressee the journalist’s impressions of these events.

The journalistic style is characterized by the use of evaluative vocabulary that has a strong emotional connotation (an energetic start, a firm position, a severe crisis).

The journalistic style performs the function of influence and message. The interaction of these functions determines the use of words in journalism. The message function, by the nature of the use of linguistic means, brings the text closer to the scientific and business style, which has features of factuality. The text, which performs the function of influence, has an openly evaluative nature, aimed at a propaganda impact according to certain parameters, approaching literary prose.

In addition to informational and influencing functions, journalistic style texts also perform other functions inherent in language: communicative, aesthetic, expressive.

15. Book and colloquial speech. Their features .

Colloquial words are contrasted with book vocabulary, which includes words of scientific, technical, journalistic and official business styles. The lexical meaning of book words, their grammatical design and pronunciation are subject to the norms of the literary language, deviation from which is unacceptable.

Colloquial vocabulary is characterized by concrete meaning, while book vocabulary is predominantly abstract. The terms book and colloquial vocabulary are conditional; book words, typical for written speech, can be used orally, and colloquial words - in written form.

In Russian there is large group words used in all styles and characteristic of both oral and written speech. They are called stylistically neutral.

16. Conversational style

Colloquial speech- This is the oral form of the existence of language. The distinctive features of oral speech can be attributed entirely to the conversational style. However, the concept of “colloquial speech” is broader than the concept of “conversational style”. They cannot be mixed. Although the colloquial style is mainly realized in the oral form of communication, some genres of other styles are also realized in oral speech, for example: report, lecture, report, etc. Colloquial speech functions only in private sphere communication, in everyday life, friendship, family, etc. In the field of mass communication, colloquial speech is not applicable. However, this does not mean that the colloquial style is limited to everyday topics. Conversational speech can also touch on other topics: for example, a conversation with family or a conversation between people in informal relationships about art, science, politics, sports, etc., a conversation between friends at work related to the speaker’s profession, conversations in public institutions, such as clinics, schools, etc.

In the sphere of everyday communication it operates colloquial style. The main features of everyday conversational style:

1. Relaxed and informal nature of communication;

2. Reliance on an extra-linguistic situation, i.e. the immediate context of speech in which communication takes place. For example: Woman (before leaving home): What should I wear?(about the coat) Is this what it is? Or that?(about the jacket) Won't I freeze?

Listening to these statements and not knowing the specific situation, it is impossible to guess what they are talking about. Thus, in colloquial speech the extra-linguistic situation becomes integral part communication.

1) Lexical variety: general book vocabulary, terms, foreign borrowings, words of high stylistic coloring, and even some facts of vernacular, dialects and jargons. This is explained, firstly, by the thematic diversity of colloquial speech, which is not limited to everyday topics, everyday remarks, and secondly, by the implementation of colloquial speech in two tones - serious and comic, and in the latter case it is possible to use a variety of elements.

2) Conversational speech is characterized emotionally expressive assessments subjective in nature, since the speaker acts as a private person and expresses his personal opinion and attitude. Very often this or that situation is assessed in a hyperbolic way: “Wow! It’s crazy!”, “There’s a sea of flowers in the garden!”, “I’m thirsty! I’ll die!” Typical use of words figuratively, For example: "Your head is a mess!" Colloquial vocabulary is heterogeneous:

A vernacular that is on the verge of literary use, not rude in nature, somewhat familiar; For example: potato instead of potato, savvy instead of intelligence, become instead of happen;

Extraliterary, rude vernacular, for example: drive up instead of achieve, flop instead of fell;

3. Conversational vocabulary includes:

Colloquial professionalisms, slang words ( Plaisir- pleasure, fun; plein air- nature),

Argotisms ( split apart- betray; new guy, new guy- young, inexperienced)

Slang vocabulary can be associated with the age community of generations (for example, in the language of youth: spurs(crib), pair(two).

All these categories of words have a narrow sphere of distribution; in terms of expression, they are characterized by extreme reduction.

4. Syntactic constructions also have their own characteristics. For colloquial speech, constructions with particles, interjections, and phraseological constructions are typical: “They tell you and tell you - and it’s all to no avail!”, “Where are you going? There’s dirt there!” and so on.

Characteristic of colloquial speech is silence, incompleteness of statements, an abundance of ellipses and incomplete sentences, numerous repetitions, inserted constructions, the predominance of coordinating sentences over subordinating ones, and the dialogical nature of the statement.

In a conversational style the following are presented:

Frozen structures that cannot be clearly divided ( what is true is true; what is harmful is harmful);

structures with uncontrollable shapes ( homework is in order);

- "dismemberment" and connecting structures ( I respect her - for her honesty and integrity; I'll go home. To my granddaughter);

Sentences with "displaced" construction ( I don’t even know where to get water) and etc.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education
"SIBERIAN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY"
Polytechnical Institute

ABSTRACT
by discipline " Russian language and culture of speech »
Subject: Language functions

Completed

Krasnoyarsk 2012
Plan
Introduction
1. Language functions
2. Communication function
3. Cognitive function
4. Cumulative function
5. Other language features
Conclusion
Bibliography

Introduction
The Russian language in the broadest sense of the word is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, pronunciation features of all Russian people, i.e. everyone who speaks Russian as their native language.
Among the varieties of the Russian language, the Russian literary language clearly stands out. It is rightly considered the highest form of the national language.
The Russian language ensures the continuity of the cultural traditions of the people, the possibility of the emergence and development of a powerful stream of national literature. On the other hand, major social upheavals that affect the foundations of the social order always leave a very noticeable mark on the language.
On the one hand, it ensures interaction between the sender of a verbal message and its recipient, the addressee. In this case, they talk about its communicative function. This function is considered to be the leading one, since it is it, according to most modern scientists, that determines the essence of language.
On the other hand, language is aimed at reality and at the world of images that is built between reality and man, acting as a set of knowledge that together form a picture, or model, of the world. This picture of the world, localized in the mind, constantly replenished and adjusted, regulates human behavior. Language does not simply convey messages in acts of communication in the form of utterances that contain certain knowledge about some fragments of the world. It plays an important role in the accumulation of knowledge and its storage in memory, contributing to its ordering, systematization, i.e. participating in their processing. Thus, language provides human cognitive activity. In this case, we talk about its cognitive function.
Both functions of language are inextricably linked; they mutually presuppose each other. To better understand these aspects of language, we can turn to a consideration of what communication and knowledge of the world are.
Information processes serve to transmit and receive, accumulate and store, and process information.
Information in the most general sense can be understood as a message. This message, being accepted by some system (a living organism - a person or an information device created by it - a computer), changes the information state of this system and in certain cases may turn out to be an incentive (command) to carry out any operations or actions, to start or completion of any process. For example, a message conveyed that heavy rain is possible tomorrow may encourage you to take an umbrella with you when leaving home. In other words, information is capable of performing a management function.
Any information process presupposes the presence of the following components and relationships between them:
Message Sender > Message > Message Recipient
The message is not material. It cannot be transmitted or perceived directly. The carrier of the message is a certain physical signal.
The transition from message to signal is carried out during the encoding process. The transition from signal to message is a decoding process. Thus, the physical carrier of the message transmitted through a speech utterance is an acoustic event (a sequence of sound waves that has undergone appropriate modification in terms of the characteristics of their segments in terms of frequency, intensity, duration and timbre).
When encoding and decoding, elements of the corresponding code are used (in speech communication, these functions are performed by the language system, which includes pragmatic and semantic, lexical, or vocabulary, or nominative, and syntactic, morphological and phonological-phonetic components). Both the sender and the recipient must know this code.
In speech interaction, the sender of the message is the speaker. His brain and vocal organs ensure the process of encoding the message and transmitting the physical signal, i.e. they function as a transmitter. The recipient of the message is the listener. Its perception of the sound signal and decoding is carried out by a receiver, which includes the hearing organs and the brain.
A message is characterized by the fact that it relates to some topic (subject). The subject of the message is usually a certain event (scene) displayed in the mind.
Thus, language is a multifunctional system that deals with information - its creation, storage and transmission. The functions of language are related to its essence, nature, purpose in society and at the same time interconnected.
The purpose of the abstract is to characterize the main functions of the language.
1. Language functions
The category of function in science is not clearly defined. There is no unity in understanding the content of this concept among linguists. In most works, the function of language is understood as the main purpose of language - this is how the communicative function is highlighted as its only function. This idea is developed in their works by domestic linguists and theorists N.I. Zhinkin, R.V. Pazukhin, G.V. Kolshansky B.A. Serebrennikov and some others.
A number of scientists, along with the communicative function, distinguish the expressive function of expressing thoughts and consider it to be quite equal to the communicative function of language. (A. Chikobava, A.A. Reformatsky, V.Z. Pamfilov, etc.)
In addition, functions refer to the areas of language use (the function of interethnic communication, the function of scientific or everyday communication, etc.), as well as the types of language use in private communication situations (poetic function, emotive function, address function, index function, magical function, cumulative function, impact function, etc.)
Thus, the term “function” in linguistics is used in several meanings:
1) general functions of language as a social phenomenon, different from other social phenomena; purpose, role of language in human society
2) properties of language as a system of signs, purpose, role of language units.
3) private functions that language performs in specific situations of communication between people.
In the first and third cases they talk about the functions of language, in the second - about the functions of linguistic units (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences).
The functions of language are a manifestation of its essence. Language researchers do not agree on the number and nature of functions. Language performs many functions (scientists identify up to 25 functions of language and its units), but the main function of language, its main purpose, is to be a means of communication between people.
The Austrian psychologist, philosopher and linguist Karl Bühler, describing in his book “Theory of Language” the various orientations of language signs, defines 3 main functions of language:
1) The function of expression, or the expressive function, when the state of the speaker is expressed.
2) The function of appeal, appeal to the listener, or appellative function.
3) The function of representation, or representative, when one says or tells something to another.
There are other points of view on the functions performed by the language, for example, as A.A. Reformatsky understood them.
1) Nominative, that is, words of language can name things and phenomena of reality.
2) Communicative; proposals serve this purpose.
3) Expressive, thanks to it the emotional state of the speaker is expressed.
Within the framework of the expressive function, we can also distinguish the deictic (indicative) function, which combines some elements of language with gestures.
But most researchers include communicative, cognitive, and cumulative functions as the main functions of language.
2. Communication function
The function of language as a social phenomenon is communicative - the function of transmitting information from subject to subject. The communicative function is inherent in language, no matter from what point of view we consider it - both from the point of view of the speaker and from the point of view of the listener. It is implemented in any communication situation. This allows us to consider the communicative function as the main function of language as a social phenomenon.
Language serves, first of all, as a means of human communication. We live in a society and communicate in a certain society in a certain space in certain time. Thus, language is the main means of communication.
Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists, first of all, so that people can communicate. Information is information that is understandable and important for the behavior of the person to whom it is addressed. The text will be informative only when the addressee is ready to perceive it and when the information contained in it somehow affects his behavior.
Language communication has a number of names: speech communication, verbal communication, speech communication, verbal communication, speech activity, speech.
The minimal units of linguistic communication are speech acts (or language acts). The word act is used to emphasize the dynamic, procedural side of the phenomenon. If a process is not meant, the term statement is often used. Speech acts are conventionally classified as realizations (pronunciation, execution) of sentences, although sometimes such a far from elementary form as a lecture, sermon, report is also called a speech act.
The word speech is quite ambiguous. This is the act of uttering a statement, speaking (i.e. the act of the speaker), and the unity of the acts of the speaker and the writer, and the act of the writer, and the unity of the acts of the writer and the reader, and the whole totality of the acts of the speaker and the writer, on the one hand, and the acts of the listener and the reader, on the other hand. In other words, a speech act can be considered as a unity, on the one hand, of the act of producing an utterance and transmitting it in oral or written form and, on the other hand, of the act of perceiving and understanding this utterance. We can talk about oral and written speech. The word speech can serve as the name of the form of existence of language, the way of its existence.
Human communication in general and linguistic communication in particular are subject to the conventions that are accepted in a given ethnic culture or in a given social group in a given historical era. Therefore, mere knowledge of the system of a particular language, its phonological, grammatical and lexical rules is not enough to successfully communicate in this language. Very good knowledge from the field of ethnolinguistics and sociolinguistics related to a given ethnic group or ethnographic group, to a given society or social group is extremely necessary. In other words, a person who wants to successfully communicate with speakers of another language is required to be able to get used to the mentality of another people (ethnic group) or subethnic group, to the mentality of its specific social (class, class, professional, gender and age) group.
Language is not just a self-contained system of signs, but a system of rules for human communicative behavior in a particular culture and society.
It is known that you can know well the norms of pronunciation, words and rules for using them, grammatical forms and constructions, be able to use different ways of expressing the same thought (master synonymy), in other words, be linguistically and linguistically competent, but not be able to use this knowledge and skills adequately in a real speech situation, or, as scientists say, a communicative situation . In other words, for language proficiency, the skills and abilities of using certain words, grammatical structures in specific conditions of communication, or communication (communication - from the Latin communico - I connect, communicate) are important. That is why in language teaching a type of communicative competence is distinguished. In a meaning close to this term, the term speech competence is sometimes used in the literature.
Communicative competence is the ability to understand others and generate one’s own programs of speech behavior that are adequate to the goals, areas, and situations of communication. It includes knowledge of the basic concepts of linguistic speech (in the methodology they are usually called speech science) - styles, types of speech, structure of description, narrative, reasoning, ways of connecting sentences in the text, etc.; skills in retelling text. However, the described knowledge and skills do not yet provide communication adequate to the communicative situation.
A very important place in the communicative function is occupied by the actual communicative skills and abilities - to choose the desired linguistic form, method of expression depending on the conditions of the communicative act, i.e. skills and abilities verbal communication according to the communication situation.
etc.................

Any language, including our native Russian, exists, performing several of its main functions, which are designed to ensure processes in society:

communications,
informing,
knowledge, etc.

In accordance with these processes, as well as due to exclusively human properties and peculiarities of existence, such functions can be combined into a certain system, which we will analyze by examples.

Some of the most important modern functions include communicative. Since language has long been used to store and transmit any information, the majority of such information that circulates in society is presented in its linguistic form. Language plays a predominant role in the communicative function.

The means of expression here can be types of speech:

As well as non-linguistic means (gestures, facial expressions, etc.).

Close to it there is also educational a function that performs cognitive tasks, namely: the use of language for the purpose of preserving and subsequently transmitting knowledge.

The functional system of any language also represents its cumulative, i.e. “accumulative” function, through which knowledge or information is not just stored and transmitted, but also collected, refracted and “sorted.”

For example, in speech or writing, in addition to the exchange of information, we may be puzzled by some impact on the interlocutor. This function will be called voluntary and pursue a variety of goals - from persuasion, consolation to denunciation, agitation, etc.

Fully corresponding to the task of emotional influence on a person is emotive a function of language that operates through the use of special emotional and expressive means in speech - words and intonation. (e.g. interjections - oh, ah, uh)

The tasks of communication may not always include transmitting or receiving information; there are options when only the goal of simply establishing contacts prevails. In such situations, the speech of those communicating can be limited only to phrases - “how are you?”, “Come on”, words - “uh-huh”, “yes”, etc.

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Plan

Introduction

1. Language functions

2. Communication function

3. Cognitive function

4. Cumulative function

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The Russian language in the broadest sense of the word is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, pronunciation features of all Russian people, i.e. everyone who speaks Russian as their native language.

Among the varieties of the Russian language, the Russian literary language clearly stands out. It is rightly considered the highest form of the national language.

From written monuments we can trace the development of our language over a thousand years. But in return for everything that had been defended and strengthened, we received new system language, a system in which modern thinking was gradually deposited. A simple example in the language of an ancient person there are three genders (masculine, neuter and feminine), three numbers (singular, plural and dual), nine cases, three simple tenses. Modern language chooses a more strict and convenient, binary opposition. The system of cases and tenses is also simplified. Each time the language turns its edges in the way that is required by this particular era. From endless speech practice a renewed language is born.

The Russian language ensures the continuity of the cultural traditions of the people, the possibility of the emergence and development of a powerful stream of national literature. On the other hand, major social upheavals that affect the foundations of the social order always leave a very noticeable mark on the language.

Language is a multifunctional system that deals with information - its creation, storage and transmission. The functions of language are related to its essence, nature, purpose in society and at the same time interconnected.

The purpose of the essay is to characterize the main functions of the Russian language.

1. Language functions

The term “function” in linguistics is used in several meanings:

1) the purpose, the role of language in human society, 2) the purpose of the role of language units. In the first case, they talk about the functions of language, in the second – about the functions of linguistic units (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences).

The functions of language are a manifestation of its essence. Language researchers do not agree on the number and nature of functions. Language performs many functions (scientists identify up to 25 functions of language and its units), but the main function of language, its main purpose, is to be a means of communication between people.

The main functions of language include communicative, cognitive, cumulative.

2. Communication function

The main function of language is communicative. Language serves, first of all, as a means of human communication. We live in a society and communicate in a certain society in a certain space at a certain time. Thus, language is the main means of communication.

It is known that one can know well the norms of pronunciation, words and rules of their use, grammatical forms and constructions, be able to use different ways of expressing the same thought (master synonymy), in other words, be linguistically and linguistically competent, but not be able to use this knowledge and skills are adequate to a real speech situation, or, as scientists say, a communicative situation. In other words, for language proficiency, the skills and abilities of using certain words, grammatical structures in specific conditions of communication, or communication (communication - from the Latin communico - I connect, communicate) are important. That is why in language teaching a type of communicative competence is distinguished. In a meaning close to this term, the term is sometimes used in the literature speech competence.

Communicative competence is the ability to understand others and generate one’s own programs of speech behavior, adequate to the goals, areas, and situations of communication. It includes knowledge of the basic concepts of linguistic speech (in the methodology they are usually called speech science) - styles, types of speech, structure of description, narrative, reasoning, ways of connecting sentences in the text, etc.; skills in retelling text . However, the described knowledge and skills do not yet provide communication adequate to the communicative situation.

A very important place in the communicative function is occupied by the actual communicative skills and abilities - to choose the desired linguistic form, method of expression depending on the conditions of the communicative act, i.e. skills of verbal communication in accordance with the communicative situation.

Currently, the components of the situation, or speech conditions, have already been determined, which dictate the choice of words and grammatical means for the speaker. This is, firstly, the relationship between the interlocutors (official/unofficial) and their social roles . There is no doubt that the nature of verbal communication will be different, depending on who we are communicating with, what the social status of the speakers is: student, teacher, student, what is their age, gender, interests, etc. Secondly, the place of communication (for example, communication between a teacher and a student in class, during a break, in a friendly conversation). The third, very important component of a speech situation is the goal and intentions of the speaker. Thus, an order, request or demand, of course, will differ from a message, information or their emotional assessment, expression of gratitude, joy, resentment, etc.

Thus, communication skills themselves are the skills of verbal communication, taking into account who we are talking to, where we are talking, etc. finally, for what purpose. There is no doubt that their formation is possible only on the basis of linguistic and linguistic competence.

It should be noted that the formation of a communicative function in school today is of particular importance. In the "Modernization Concept" Russian education for the period until 2010" Government Russian Federation Communication and the ability to cooperate are named as one of the factors of particular importance. The school is designed to develop the student’s ability to realize himself in dynamic socio-economic conditions, and to be able to adapt to various life circumstances. There is no doubt that one of the characteristics of his personality is communication skills, mastery of verbal culture, oral and written speech in various social spheres of language use.

So, it’s worth agreeing with the idea: communication, communication through language, is one of the most important factors that “created” humanity.

3. Cognitive function

Communication between people presupposes certain knowledge about the surrounding reality, and one of the universal and effective means knowledge of the surrounding world is language. Thus, the language also performs educational or cognitive, function.

With the help of language, cognition and study of the surrounding world occurs to a large extent. The Russian language ensures the continuity of the cultural traditions of the people, the possibility of the emergence and development of a powerful stream of national literature.

Linguistic competence ensures the cognitive culture of the student’s personality, the development of logical thinking, memory, imagination of students, mastering the skills of introspection, self-esteem, as well as the formation of linguistic reflection as a process of student awareness of his speech activity.

It should be noted that the distinction between language and linguistic competencies is to a certain extent conditional. Isolating linguistic competence as an independent competence is important for understanding the cognitive (cognitive) function of the native language subject. This is a significant difference from teaching non-native languages.

Mastering a language involves not only acquiring knowledge about the language and mastering the language material itself.

Scientists recognize the complex relationship between language and thinking. In general, the relationship between language and thinking is as follows. The ability to correlate linguistic units with phenomena of reality is based on thinking, on the ability of the human brain to reflect reality. Without such correlation, communication between people would be impossible. Indeed, in one of the definitions of language, language is called practical, actual consciousness (K. Marx, F. Engels).

Consciousness, thinking as a property of the brain is ideal; it does not have the properties of matter - smell, taste, temperature, etc. Language, or rather its units, has sound, i.e. material side. Thinking materializes in language, in sounds, through which it is transmitted to other people.

The results of knowledge of the world are consolidated in words, since the lexical meaning of a word is based on a concept. Thus, it becomes possible to transfer previous life experience to subsequent generations through the word (in this case we are talking about the function of language, which was called the function of storing information). Based on the existing results of cognition, enshrined in words, further knowledge of the world is carried out, therefore language is characterized as a tool, an instrument of thinking.

The relationship between thinking and language is also revealed in the question of the origin of the concept and the word. There is a widespread opinion that it is impossible for a concept to appear without a word, i.e. According to this concept, the concept arises together with the word, or on the basis of the word. In this case, the word is a means of creating a concept. According to other ideas, the content of a concept is formed before the appearance of a word, but only when combined with sound does the content of the concept acquire clarity and formality. However, taking into account the opinions listed above, it must be borne in mind that the appearance of the concept and the word are based on different reasons. A concept is formed as a result of cognitive activity and human life practice, and the appearance of a word is associated with the need for communication.

FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"USSURI STATE PEDAGOGICAL INSTITUTE"
Faculty of Romance-Germanic Philology
Department of English
Functions of the language.
Abstract on linguistics
Completed by a student

1st year 412 groups

Ulanova A.A.
checked by Ph.D., Associate Professor

Prokopenko A.V.
Ussuriysk – 2010

Introduction……………………………………………………………….2

Language functions……………………………………………….3

Communication function………………………………...6

Cognitive function...............................................8

Cumulative function…………………………………..10

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………12

List of used literature………………………………13

Among the varieties of the Russian language, the Russian literary language clearly stands out. It is rightly considered the highest form of the national language.

From written monuments we can trace the development of our language over a thousand years. But in return for everything that had been preserved and strengthened, we received a new system of language, a system in which the thinking of our time was gradually deposited. A simple example in the language of an ancient person there are three genders (masculine, neuter and feminine), three numbers (singular, plural and dual), nine cases, three simple tenses. Modern language chooses a more strict and convenient, binary opposition. The system of cases and tenses is also simplified. The language turns its edges every time, in the way that is required by this particular era. From endless speech practice a renewed language is born.

The purpose of the essay is to characterize the main functions of the Russian language.
1. Language functions
The term “function” in linguistics is used in several meanings:

1) purpose, role of language in human society,

2) assignment of the role of language units.

In the first case, they talk about the functions of language, in the second – about the functions of linguistic units (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences).

Language functions– this is a manifestation of his essence. Language researchers do not agree on the number and nature of functions. Language performs many functions (scientists identify up to 25 functions of language and its units), but the main function of language, its main purpose, is to be a means of communication between people.

In total, there are 15 language functions:

Communicative (or communication function)- the main function of language, the use of language to convey information;

Cognitive (or thinking)- formation of the thinking of the individual and society;

Cognitive (or accumulative function)- transfer of information and its storage;

Emotionally expressive- expression of feelings, emotions;

Voluntary (or appealing-incentive function)- impact function;

Metalinguistic- explanation of the language itself by means of the language;

Phatic (or contact-setting);

Ideological function- the use of a particular language or type of writing to express ideological preferences. For example, the Irish language is used primarily not for communication, but as a symbol of Irish statehood. The use of traditional writing systems is often perceived as cultural continuity, and the transition to the Latin alphabet as modernization.

Omadative (or reality-shaping)- creation of realities and their control;

Metalinguistic. In relation to all sign systems, language is a tool of explanation and organization. The point is that the metalanguage of any code is formed in words.

Nominative- a person’s faith in the name;

Denotative, representative- transmission of information and its presentation;

Conative- orientation to the addressee;

Aesthetic- sphere of creativity;

Axiological- value judgment (good/bad);

The main functions of language include communicative, cognitive, cumulative. We will look at them in more detail.
2. Communication function
The main function of language is communicative. Language serves, first of all, as a means of human communication. We live in a society and communicate in a certain society in a certain space at a certain time. Thus, language is the main means of communication.

It should be noted that the formation of a communicative function in school today is of particular importance. In the “Concept for the modernization of Russian education for the period until 2010” of the Government of the Russian Federation, communication and the ability to cooperate are named as one of the factors of particular importance. The school is designed to develop the student’s ability to realize himself in dynamic socio-economic conditions, and to be able to adapt to various life circumstances. There is no doubt that one of the characteristics of his personality is communication skills, mastery of verbal culture, oral and written speech in various social spheres of language use.

3. Cognitive function
Communication between people presupposes certain knowledge about the surrounding reality, and one of the universal and effective means of understanding the surrounding world is language. Thus, the language also performs educational or cognitive, function.

Mastering a language involves not only acquiring knowledge about the language and mastering the language material itself.

Language in this function acts as a connecting link between generations, serves as a “storage” and a means of transmitting extra-linguistic collective experience.

The cumulative function is most clearly manifested in the area of vocabulary, since it is precisely this function that is directly related to objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The lexical system is largely determined by the categories of the material world and social factors.

“A word is the name of a specific thing, a specific phenomenon - unambiguously, but it is not a simple sign of a thing or phenomenon. A word can tell about both the time and the environment in which it exists.”

First of all, the vocabulary reflects fragments of social experience determined by the main activities of a given people.

The existence of certain lexical units is explained by practical needs.

The connection between the history and culture of a people and language is especially clearly manifested at the phraseological level. A large number of proverbs and sayings reflect specific national features and have a linguistic imagery that is rooted in the history of the people, their way of life, customs, and traditions.

Some layers of vocabulary are more obviously determined by social factors, others less obviously. If national-cultural content represents the core of phraseological units, then in proper names it is a kind of connotation.

The most complex group from the point of view of determining their national and cultural content is formed by background vocabulary. It has been proven that if we compare conceptually equivalent words in different languages, then they will differ from each other due to the fact that each of them is associated with a certain body of knowledge.

The entire set of information characteristic of ordinary linguistic consciousness related to a word is called lexical background.

The concept of background vocabulary is undeveloped. The study of background knowledge is of great importance both for regional linguistics (the main science within which this concept is studied), and for semiology and linguistics in general.

Work in this direction will certainly contribute to the further development of the problem of language and culture.

The modern period of development of language teaching methods is characterized by a keen interest in the cumulative function of language, in teaching language as a means of familiarization with national culture.

Language learning should develop cultural competence, which ensures the formation of a Russian linguistic picture of the world, mastery of nationally marked units of language, and Russian speech etiquette.

It should be noted that the goals of developing cultural competence are different in teaching native and non-native languages. In teaching foreign languages, knowledge of behavioral stereotypes and realities that are characteristic of the life of one people and alien to others is carried out in order to overcome possible cultural shock when becoming familiar with the uniqueness of a foreign culture.

Other goals involve the formation of cultural competence in teaching the native language - this is the comprehension of the national culture of one’s people, knowledge of its identity, the formation of one of the most important value orientations - awareness of the importance of the native language in the life of the people, the development of the spiritual and moral world of the student, his national self-awareness.

In our conditions multinational state- it is also knowledge of the culture of the Russian people in its meeting with other cultures, awareness of the diversity of the spiritual and material world, recognition and understanding of the values of the culture of another people, the ability to live and communicate in a multinational country.
Conclusion
The problem of “Language and Society” is broad and multifaceted. First of all, language is social in its essence. Its main function is to be a means, an instrument of communication between people. On the basis of this function and in connection with it, other functions are carried out by language - influence, communication, formation and expression of thought. These functions are also social.

We can say that society has the language that society created, and uses the language as it knows how and can. The influence of language on society increases with the development of society itself - this influence increases with the development of production, technology, science, culture and the state. Language participates in the organization of labor, in the management of social production, the activities of institutions, in the implementation of the process of education and upbringing of members of society, in the development of literature and science.
Society influences language, but language, in turn, influences society, participating in various areas of people’s lives and activities.
The main functions of language: communicative, cognitive, cumulative. Communication function manifested in the purpose of language to serve as a tool, a means of transmitting information, exchanging thoughts and communicating about experienced emotions. Cognitive (cognitive) function closely related to the first. At the core cumulative function lies the collection and information content.
Bibliography

Burov A.A. Cogniolinguistic variations on the theme of the Russian linguistic picture of the world. – Pyatigorsk, 2003.

Grekov V.F. and others. A manual for classes in the Russian language. - M.: Education, 1968.

Maksimov V.I. Russian language and culture of speech. - M.: Gardariki, 2002.

Skvortsov L.I. Language, communication and culture // Russian language at school. - 1994. - No. 1.

Sternin I.A. Russian language and communicative consciousness in the coming years (an attempt at a forecast) // World of Russian Word. – 2004. – No. 2. – P. 73-74.

Shmelev A.D. Russian language and extra-linguistic reality. – M., 2002.

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FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE 11. COMMUNICATION FUNCTION
The most important function of language is communicative. Communication means communication, exchange of information. In other words, language arose and exists primarily so that people can communicate.

Let us recall the two definitions of language given above: as a system of signs and as a means of communication. There is no point in pitting them against each other: these are, one might say, two sides of the same coin. Language carries out its communicative function due to the fact that it is a system of signs: it is simply impossible to communicate in any other way. And signs, in turn, are intended to convey information from person to person.

Actually, what does information mean? Does any text (remember: this is the implementation of a language system in the form of a sequence of signs) carry information?

Obviously not. Here I am, passing by people in white coats, and accidentally hear: “The pressure has dropped to three atmospheres.” So what? Three atmospheres – is it a lot or a little? Should we rejoice or, say, run for the hills?

Another example. Having opened the book, we come across, let’s say, the following passage: “Destruction of the hypothalamus and the upper part of the pituitary stalk as a result of neoplastic or granulomatous infiltration can cause the development of the clinical picture of ND... In a pathological study, insufficiency in the development of supraoptic neurons of the hypothalamus was less common than paraventricular ones; a reduced neurohypophysis was also detected.” As if on foreign language, is not it? Perhaps the only thing we will take away from this text is that this book is not for us, but for specialists in the relevant field of knowledge. It doesn't provide any information for us.

Third example. Is the statement “The Volga flows into the Caspian Sea” informative for me, an adult? No. I know this well. Everyone knows this well. Nobody doubts this. It is no coincidence that this statement serves as an example of banal, trivial, hackneyed truths: it is of no interest to anyone. It is not informative.

Information is transmitted in space and time. In space - this means from me to you, from person to person, from one people to another... In time - this means from yesterday to today, from today to tomorrow... And “day” here should be understood not literally, but figuratively, generalized: information is preserved and transmitted from century to century, from millennium to millennium. (The invention of writing, printing, and now the computer has made a revolution in this matter.) Thanks to language, the continuity of human culture is carried out, the accumulation and assimilation of experience developed by previous generations occurs. But this will be discussed below. For now, let us note: a person can communicate in time and... with himself. Really: why do you need a notebook with names, addresses, birthdays? It was you “yesterday” who sent a message to your “today” self for tomorrow. What about notes and diaries? Without relying on his memory, a person gives information “for preservation” to the language, or more precisely, to its representative – the text. He communicates with himself over time. Let me emphasize: in order to preserve himself as an individual, a person must communicate - this is a form of his self-affirmation. And as a last resort, in the absence of interlocutors, he must communicate at least with himself. (This situation is familiar to people who for a long time those who find themselves cut off from society: prisoners, travelers, hermits.) Robinson in the famous novel by D. Defoe, until he meets Friday, begins to talk with a parrot - this is better than going crazy from loneliness...

We have already said: the word is also, in a sense, a deed. Now, in relation to the communicative function of language, this idea can be clarified. Let's take the simplest case - the elementary act of communication. One person says something to another: asks him, orders him, advises him, warns him... What dictates these speech actions? Caring for the good of your neighbor? Not only. Or at least not always. Usually the speaker has some kind of self-interest in mind, and this is completely natural, such is human nature. For example, he asks the other person to do something instead of doing it himself. For him, the deed, as it were, turns into a word, into speech. Neuropsychologists say: talking man must first of all suppress, slow down the excitation of some centers in his brain that are responsible for movements and actions (B.F. Porshnev). It turns out deputy actions. Well, is the second person the interlocutor (or, in other words, the listener, the addressee)? He himself, perhaps, does not need what he will do at the request of the speaker (or the reasons and grounds for this action are not entirely clear), and nevertheless he will fulfill this request, translate the word into real action. But in this you can see the beginnings of the division of labor, the fundamental principles of human society! This is how the greatest American linguist Leonard Bloomfield characterizes the use of language. Language, he said, allows one person to perform an action (action, reaction) where another person experiences a need for this action (stimulus).

So, it’s worth agreeing with the idea: communication, communication through language, is one of the most important factors that “created” humanity.
12. THINKING FUNCTION
But a speaking person is a thinking person. And the second function of language, closely related to the communicative one, is the function mental(in another way - cognitive, from lat. cognition– ‘cognition’). They often even ask: what is more important, what comes first – communication or thinking? Probably, the question cannot be posed this way: these two functions of language determine each other. To speak means to express one's thoughts. But, on the other hand, these thoughts themselves are formed in our heads with the help of language. And if we remember that among animals, language is “already” used for communication, but thinking as such is not “yet” here, then we can come to the conclusion about the primacy of the communicative function. But it's better to say this: the communicative function educates, “nurtures” the mental. How should this be understood?

One little girl put it this way: “How do I know What I Think? I’ll tell you, then I’ll find out.” Truly, through the mouth of a child the truth speaks. Here we come into contact with the most important problem of the formation (and formulation) of thought. It is worth repeating once again: a person’s thought at its birth is based not only on universal content categories and structures, but also on the categories of a specific language unit. Of course, this does not mean that, besides verbal thinking, there are no other forms of intelligent activity. There is also figurative thinking, familiar to any person, but especially developed among professionals: artists, musicians, performers... there is technical thinking - the professional dignity of designers, mechanics, draftsmen, and again, to one degree or another, not alien to all of us. Finally, there is objective thinking - we are all guided by it in a lot of everyday situations, from tying shoelaces to unlocking the front door... But the main form of thinking that unites all people in the vast majority of life situations is, of course, linguistic thinking, verbal.

It’s another matter that words and other units of language appear in the course of mental activity in some kind of “not their own” form, they are difficult to grasp and isolate (of course: we think much faster than we speak!), and our “inner speech” (this is a term introduced into science by the wonderful Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky) is fragmentary and associative. This means that the words here are represented by some of their own “pieces” and they are connected to each other differently than in ordinary “external” speech, and in addition, images are interspersed into the linguistic fabric of thought - visual, auditory, tactile, etc. P. It turns out that the structure of “internal” speech is much more complex than the structure of “external” speech that is accessible to observation. Yes it is. And yet, the fact that it is based on the categories and units of a specific language is beyond doubt.

L.S. Vygotsky

Confirmation of this was found in various experiments, especially actively carried out in the middle of our century. The subject was specially “puzzled” and, while he – to himself – was thinking about some problem, his speech apparatus was examined from different angles. Either they scanned his throat and oral cavity with an X-ray machine, or with weightless sensors they took the electrical potential from his lips and tongue... The result was the same: during mental (“silent!”) activity, the human speech apparatus was in a state of activity. Some shifts and changes were taking place in him - in a word, work was going on!

Even more characteristic in this sense are the testimonies of polyglots, that is, people who are fluent in several languages. Usually they easily determine at any given moment in which language they are thinking. (Moreover, the choice or change of the language on which the thought is based depends on the environment in which the polyglot is located, on the very subject of the thought, etc.)

The famous Bulgarian singer Boris Hristov, who lived abroad for many years, considered it his duty to sing arias in the original language. He explained it this way: “When I speak Italian, I think in Italian. When I speak Bulgarian, I think in Bulgarian.” But one day, at a performance of “Boris Godunov” - Christov sang, naturally, in Russian - the singer came up with some idea in Italian. And he unexpectedly continued the aria... in Italian. The conductor was petrified. And the public (it was in London), thank God, did not notice anything...

It is curious that among writers who speak several languages, it is rare to find authors who translate themselves. The fact is that for a real creator, translating, say, a novel into another language means not just rewriting it, but change mind, to re-experience, to write anew, in accordance with a different culture, with a different “view of the world.” Irish playwright Samuel Beckett, a Nobel laureate, one of the founders of the theater of the absurd, created each of his works twice, first in French, then in English. But at the same time he insisted that we should be talking about two different works. Similar arguments on this topic can also be found in Vladimir Nabokov, who wrote in Russian and English, and other “bilingual” writers. And Yu.N. Tynyanov once justified himself about the heavy style of some of his articles in the book “Archaists and Innovators”: “Language not only conveys concepts, but is also the process of their construction. Therefore, for example, retelling someone else’s thoughts is usually clearer than telling your own.” And, therefore, the more original the thought, the more difficult it is to express it...

But the question naturally arises: if a thought in its formation and development is connected with the material of a specific language, then does it not lose its specificity, its depth when transmitted by means of another language? Is translation from language to language and communication between peoples even possible then? I will answer this way: the behavior and thinking of people, with all their national coloring, is subject to some universal, universal laws. And languages, with all their diversity, are also based on some general principles(some of which we have already observed in the section devoted to the properties of the sign). So, in general, translation from language to language is, of course, possible and necessary. Well, some losses are inevitable. So are acquisitions. Shakespeare in Pasternak's translation is not only Shakespeare, but also Pasternak. Translation, according to a well-known aphorism, is the art of compromise.

All that has been said leads us to the conclusion: language is not just a form, a shell for thought, it is not even means thinking, but rather it way. The very nature of the formation of thought units and their functioning largely depends on language.
13. COGNITIVE FUNCTION
The third function of language is educational(its other name is accumulative, that is, cumulative). Most of what an adult knows about the world came to him with language, through the medium of language. He may have never been to Africa, but he knows that there are deserts and savannas, giraffes and rhinoceroses, the Nile River and Lake Chad... He has never been to a metallurgical plant, but has an idea of how iron is smelted, and perhaps , and how steel is made from iron. A person can mentally travel through time, access the secrets of the stars or the microcosm - and he owes all this to language. His own experience, obtained through the senses, constitutes an insignificant part of his knowledge.

How is a person’s inner world formed? What is the role of language in this process?

The main mental “tool” with the help of which a person understands the world is concept. A concept is formed in the course of a person’s practical activity thanks to the ability of his mind to abstract and generalize. (It is worth emphasizing: animals also have lower forms of reflection of reality in consciousness - such as sensation, perception, representation. A dog, for example, has an idea of its owner, his voice, smell, habits, etc., but a generalized one The dog does not have the concept of “owner,” as well as “smell,” “habit,” etc.) The concept is detached from the visual-sensory image of the object. This is a unit of logical thinking, the privilege of homo sapiens.

How is a concept formed? A person observes many phenomena of objective reality, compares them, and identifies various features in them. He “cuts off” signs that are unimportant, random ones, and is distracted from them, but he adds and sums up significant signs – and a concept is obtained. For example, comparing various trees - tall and short, young and old, with a straight trunk and with a curved one, deciduous and coniferous, shedding leaves and evergreen, etc., he identifies the following characteristics as constant and essential: a) these are plants (generic characteristic), b) perennial,
c) with a solid stem (trunk) and d) with branches forming a crown. This is how the concept of “tree” is formed in the human mind, under which all the variety of observed specific trees is subsumed; it is this that is enshrined in the corresponding word: tree. A word is a typical, normal form of existence of a concept. (Animals have no words - and concepts, even if there were grounds for their emergence, have nothing to rely on, nothing to gain a foothold in...)

Of course, it takes some mental effort and probably a lot of time to understand that, say, a chestnut tree under the window and a dwarf pine tree in a pot, a twig-sapling of an apple tree and a thousand-year-old sequoia somewhere in America are all "tree". But this is precisely the main path of human knowledge - from the individual to the general, from the concrete to the abstract.

Let us pay attention to the following series of Russian words: sadness, upset, admire, education, passion, treatment, understand, disgusting, openly, restrained, hate, insidious, justice, adore... Is it possible to find anything in common in their meanings? Difficult. Unless they all mean some abstract concepts: mental states, feelings, relationships, signs... Yes, that’s true. But they also have, in a sense, the same story. All of them are formed from other words with more specific – “material” – meanings. And, accordingly, the concepts behind them are also based on concepts of a lower level of generalization. Sadness derived from bake(after all, sadness burns!); grieve– from bitter, bitterness; upbringing– from nourish, food; enthusiasm– from attract, drag(that is, ‘drag along’); justice– from right(i.e. ‘located on the right hand’), etc.

This is, in principle, the path of semantic evolution of all languages of the world: generalized, abstract meanings grow in them on the basis of more specific, or, so to speak, mundane meanings. However, for every nation, some areas of reality are divided in more detail than others. It is a well-known fact that in the languages of the peoples inhabiting the Far North (Lapps, Eskimos), there are dozens of names for different types of snow and ice (although there may not be a general name for snow at all). Bedouin Arabs have dozens of names for different types of camels - depending on their breed, age, purpose, etc. It is clear that such a variety of names is caused by the conditions of life itself. This is how the famous French ethnographer Lucien Lévy-Bruhl wrote about the languages of the indigenous people of Africa and America in his book “Primitive Thinking”: “Everything is presented in the form of image-concepts, that is, a kind of drawings where the smallest features are fixed and indicated (and this is not true only in relation to all objects, whatever they may be, but also in relation to all movements, all actions, all states, all properties expressed by language). Therefore, the vocabulary of these “primitive” languages must be distinguished by such a wealth of which our languages give only a very distant idea.”

Just don’t think that all this diversity is explained solely by exotic living conditions or the unequal position of peoples on the ladder of human progress. And in languages belonging to the same civilization, say, European, you can find any number of examples of different classifications of the surrounding reality. So, in a situation in which a Russian will simply say leg(“Doctor, I hurt my leg”), the Englishman will have to choose whether to use the word leg or word foot- depending on what part of the leg we are talking about: from the hip to the ankle or the foot. A similar difference is das Bein And der Fu?– presented in German. Next, we will say in Russian finger regardless of whether it is a toe or a finger. And for an Englishman or a German this "different" fingers, and each of them has its own name. What is a toe called in English? toe, finger on hand - finger; in German – accordingly die Zehe And der Finger; however, the thumb has its own special name: thumb in English and der Daumen in German. Are these differences between fingers really that important? It seems to us, Slavs, that we still have more in common...

But in Russian, blue and cyan colors are distinguished, and for a German or Englishman this difference looks as insignificant, secondary, as for us, say, the difference between red and burgundy: blue in English and blau in German it is a single concept “blue-blue” (see § 3). And it makes no sense to ask the question: which language is closer to the truth, to the real state of affairs? Every language is right, because it has the right to its own “vision of the world.”

Even very close languages, closely related, now and then reveal their “independence”. For example, Russian and Belarusian are very similar to each other, they are blood brothers. However, in Belarusian there are no exact correspondences to Russian words communication(it is translated as adnosins, that is, strictly speaking, ‘relationships’, or how wear and tear, that is, ‘intercourse’) and connoisseur(it is translated as connoisseur or how amatar, that is, ‘amateur’, and this is not quite the same thing)… But it’s difficult to translate from Belarusian into Russian shchyry(this is both ‘sincere’ and ‘real’ and ‘friendly’) or captivity(‘harvest’? ‘success’? ‘result’? ‘effectiveness’?)… And there are a whole dictionary of such words.

Language, as we see, turns out to be a ready-made classifier of objective reality for a person, and this is good: it, as it were, lays the rails along which the train of human knowledge moves. But at the same time, the language imposes its classification system on all participants in this convention - it is also difficult to argue with this. If we were told from an early age that a finger on a hand is one thing, and a toe on a completely different thing, then by adulthood we would probably already be convinced of the validity of just such a division of reality. And if we were only talking about fingers or limbs, we agree “without looking” with other, more important points of the “convention” that we sign.

At the end of the 60s, on one of the islands of the Philippine archipelago (in Pacific Ocean) a tribe was discovered living in Stone Age conditions and in complete isolation from the rest of the world. Representatives of this tribe (they called themselves tasaday) did not even suspect that, besides them, there were other intelligent beings on Earth. When scientists and journalists began to closely describe the world of the Tasadays, they were struck by one feature: in the language of the tribe there were no words like war, enemy, hate... The Tasaday, as one journalist put it, “learned to live in harmony and harmony not only with nature, but also with each other.” Of course, this fact can be explained this way: the original friendliness and goodwill of this tribe found its natural reflection in the language. But language did not stand aside from public life; it left its mark on the formation of the moral norms of a given community: how could a newly minted tasaday learn about wars and murders? We and our languages signed a different information “convention”...

So, language educates a person, shapes his inner world - this is the essence of the cognitive function of language. Moreover, this function can manifest itself in the most unexpected specific situations.

American linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf gave such examples from his practice (he once worked as a fire safety engineer). In a warehouse where gasoline tanks are stored, people behave carefully: they do not light a fire, do not flick lighters... However, the same people behave differently in a warehouse that is known to store empty (in English empty) gasoline tanks. Here they show carelessness, they may light a cigarette, etc. Meanwhile, empty gasoline tanks are much more explosive than full ones: gasoline vapors remain in them. Why do people behave so carelessly? – Whorf asked himself. And he answered: because the word calms them, misleads them empty, which has several meanings (for example, the following: 1) ‘does not contain anything (about vacuum)’, 2) ‘does not contain something’...). And people unconsciously seem to replace one meaning with another. From such facts arose a whole linguistic concept - the theory of linguistic relativity, which asserts that a person lives not so much in the world of objective reality, but in the world of language...

So, language can be the cause of misunderstandings, mistakes, misconceptions? Yes. We have already talked about conservatism as the original property of a linguistic sign. The person who signed the “convention” is not very inclined to then change it. And therefore, linguistic classifications often diverge from scientific classifications (later and more accurate). We, for example, divide the entire living world into animals and plants, but systematologists say that such a division is primitive and incorrect, because there are still at least fungi and microorganisms that cannot be classified as either animals or plants. Our “everyday” understanding of what minerals, insects, and berries are does not coincide with the scientific one; to be convinced of this, just look in an encyclopedic dictionary. Why are there private classifications? Copernicus proved back in the 16th century that the Earth revolves around the Sun, and language still defends the previous point of view. We say: “The sun rises, the sun sets...” - and we don’t even notice this anachronism.

However, one should not think that language only hinders the progress of human knowledge. On the contrary, he can actively contribute to its development. One of the largest Japanese politicians of our time, Daisaku Ikeda, believes that it was the Japanese language that was one of the main factors that contributed to the rapid revival of post-war Japan: “In the development of modern scientific and technological achievements that have been coming to us for a long period of time from European countries and the USA, a huge The role belongs to the Japanese language, the flexible mechanism of word formation contained in it, which allows us to instantly create and easily master the truly huge number of new words that we needed to assimilate the mass of concepts that poured in from outside.” The French linguist Joseph Vandries once wrote about the same thing: “A flexible and mobile language, in which grammar is reduced to a minimum, shows thought in all its clarity and allows it to move freely; an inflexible and ponderous language hampers thought.” Leaving aside the controversial issue of the role of grammar in the processes of cognition (what does “grammar is reduced to a minimum” mean in the above quote?), I hasten to reassure the reader: you should not worry about this or that particular language or be skeptical about its capabilities. In practice, each means of communication corresponds to its own “view of the world” and sufficiently satisfies the communicative needs of a given people.
14. NOMINATIVE FUNCTION
Another extremely important function of language is nominative or nominative. In fact, we have already touched upon it when reflecting in the previous paragraph on the cognitive function. The fact is that naming is an integral part of cognition. A person, generalizing a mass of specific phenomena, abstracting from their random features and highlighting the essential ones, feels the need to consolidate the acquired knowledge in words. This is how the name appears. If not for it, the concept would remain an ethereal, speculative abstraction. And with the help of a word, a person can, as it were, “stake out” the surveyed part of the surrounding reality, say to himself: “I already know this,” hang up a name sign and move on.

Consequently, the entire system of concepts that modern man possesses rests on the system of names. The easiest way to show this is with the example of proper names. Let's try to throw out all proper names from courses in history, geography, literature - all anthroponyms (this means names of people: Alexander the Great, Columbus, Peter I, Moliere, Afanasy Nikitin, Saint-Exupery, Don Quixote, Tom Sawyer, Uncle Vanya...) and all toponyms (these are names of places: Galaxy, North Pole, Troy, City of the Sun, Vatican, Volga, Auschwitz, Capitol Hill, Black River...), – what will remain of these sciences? Obviously, the texts will become meaningless, and the person reading them will immediately lose orientation in space and time.

But names are not only proper names, but also common nouns. Terminology of all sciences - physics, chemistry, biology, etc. - these are all names. The atomic bomb could not have been created if the ancient concept of “atom”* had not been replaced by new concepts - neutron, proton and other elementary particles, nuclear fission, chain reaction, etc. - and all of them were fixed in words !

The characteristic confession of the American scientist Norbert Wiener is known about how the scientific activity of his laboratory was hampered by the lack of an appropriate name for this direction of search: it was unclear what the employees of this laboratory were doing. And only when Wiener’s book “Cybernetics” was published in 1947 (the scientist came up with this name, taking as a basis the Greek word meaning ‘helmsman, helmsman’), the new science rushed forward by leaps and bounds.

So, the nominative function of language serves not just to orient a person in space and time, it goes hand in hand with the cognitive function, it participates in the process of understanding the world.

But man is a pragmatist by nature; he seeks, first of all, practical benefits from his affairs. This means that he will not name all the surrounding objects in a row in the hope that these names will someday come in handy. No, he uses the nominative function deliberately, selectively, naming first of all what is closest to him, most often and most important.

Let us recall, for example, the names of mushrooms in Russian: how many of them do we know? White mushroom (boletus), boletus(in Belarus it is often called grandma), boletus (redhead), milk mushroom, saffron milk cap, oiler, chanterelle, honey fungus, russula, trumpet... – there will be at least a dozen. But these are all healthy, edible mushrooms. What about the inedible ones? Perhaps we distinguish only two types: fly agarics And toadstools(well, not counting some other false varieties: false honey mushrooms and so on.). Meanwhile, biologists claim that there are much more varieties of inedible mushrooms than edible ones! People simply don’t need them, they are uninteresting (except for narrow specialists in this field) - so why waste names and bother yourself?

One pattern follows from this. Any language must have gaps, that is, holes, empty spaces in the picture of the world. In other words, there must be something not named– what is not important to a person (yet) is not necessary...

Let's look in the mirror at our own familiar face and ask: what is this? Nose. And this? Lip. What's between the nose and lip? Mustache. Well, if there is no mustache, what is this place called? The answer is a shrug (or the sly “The place between the nose and lip”). Okay, one more question. What is it? Forehead. And this? Back of the head. What's between the forehead and the back of the head? In reply: head. No, the head is the whole thing, but what is this part of the head called, between the forehead and the back of the head? Few people remember the name crown, most often the answer will be the same shrug... Yes, something should not have a name.

And one more consequence follows from what has been said. In order for an object to receive a name, it must enter into public use and step over a certain “threshold of significance.” Until some time it was still possible to get by with a random or descriptive name, but from now on it is no longer possible - a separate name is needed.

In this light, it is interesting, for example, to observe the development of means (tools) of writing. History of words pen, pen, fountain pen, pencil and so on. reflects the development of a “piece” of human culture, the formation of corresponding concepts in the minds of a native Russian speaker. I remember how the first felt-tip pens appeared in the USSR in the 60s. Then they were still rare, they were brought from abroad, and the possibilities of their use were not yet entirely clear. Gradually, these objects began to be generalized into a special concept, but for a long time they did not receive their clear name. (There were names like “plakar”, “fiber pencil”, and there were variations in spelling: felt-tip pen or marker?) Today, a felt-tip pen is already a “established” concept, firmly entrenched in the corresponding name. But quite recently, in the late 80s, new, somewhat different writing tools appeared. This, in particular, is an automatic pencil with an ultra-thin (0.5 mm) lead that extends with clicks to a certain length, then a ballpoint pen (again with an ultra-fine tip), which writes not with paste, but with ink, etc. What are their names? Yes, so far - in Russian - no way. They can only be characterized descriptively: approximately as is done in this text. They have not yet entered into everyday life widely, have not become a fact of mass consciousness, which means that for the time being we can do without a special name.

A person’s attitude towards a name is generally not simple.

On the one hand, over time, the name becomes attached, “sticks” to its subject, and in the head of the native speaker there arises the illusion of the originality, the “naturalness” of the name. The name becomes a representative, even a substitute, of the subject. (Even the ancient people believed that a person’s name is internally connected with himself and forms a part of him. If, say, the name is damaged, then the person himself will suffer. This is where the ban, the so-called taboo, on using the names of close relatives came from.)

On the other hand, the participation of a name in the process of cognition leads to another illusion: “if you know the name, you know the object.” Let's say I know the word succulent- therefore, I know what it is. The same J. Vandries wrote well about this peculiar magic of the term: “Knowing the names of things means having power over them... Knowing the name of a disease is already half of curing it. We should not laugh at this primitive belief. It still lives in our time, since we attach importance to the form of diagnosis. “I have a headache, doctor.” - “This is cephalalgia.” “My stomach doesn’t work well.” “This is dyspepsia”... And patients feel better only because a representative of science knows the name of their secret enemy.”

Indeed, often in scientific discussions one witnesses how disputes on the essence of a subject are replaced by a war of names and a confrontation of terminologies. The dialogue follows the principle: tell me what terms you use, and I will tell you which school (scientific direction) you belong to.

Generally speaking, the belief in the existence of a single correct name is more widespread than we imagine. This is what the poet said:

When we clarify the language
And let's name the stone as it should,
He himself will tell you how he came into being,
What is its purpose and where is the reward.

When we find a star
Her only name is
She, with her planets,
Will step out of muteness and darkness...

(A. Aronov)

Isn’t it true, this reminds me of the words of the old eccentric from the joke: “I can imagine everything, I can understand everything. I even understand how people discovered planets so far from us. There’s just one thing I can’t understand: how did they know their names?”

Of course, one should not overestimate the power of a name. Moreover, one cannot equate a thing with its name. Otherwise, it won’t take long to come to the conclusion that all our troubles stem from incorrect names and if we just change the names, everything will immediately get better. Such a misconception, alas, cannot escape a person either. The desire for wholesale renaming is especially noticeable during periods of social upheaval. Cities and streets are renamed, instead of some military ranks others are introduced, the police become the police (or, in other countries, vice versa!), technical schools and institutes in the blink of an eye are rebaptized into colleges and academies... This is what the nominative function of language means, this is what a person’s faith in Name!
15. REGULATORY FUNCTION
Regulatory the function unites those cases of language use when the speaker aims to directly influence the addressee: to induce him to take some action or to prohibit him from doing something, to force him to answer a question, etc. Wed. statements such as: What time is it now? Do you want some milk? Please call me tomorrow. Everyone to the rally! May I never hear this again! You will take my bag with you. No need for unnecessary words. As can be seen from the examples given, the regulatory function has at its disposal a variety of lexical means and morphological forms (the category of mood plays a special role here), as well as intonation, word order, syntactic constructions, etc.

I note that various kinds of incentives - such as a request, order, warning, prohibition, advice, persuasion, etc. - are not always formalized as such, expressed using “own” linguistic means. Sometimes they appear in someone else's guise, using linguistic units that usually serve other purposes. Thus, a mother can express her request to her son not to come home late, directly, using the imperative form (“Don’t come late today, please!”), or she can disguise it as a question (“What time are you going to be back?”), and also under reproach, warning, statement of fact, etc.; let’s compare statements such as: “Yesterday you came late again...” (with a special intonation), “Look - now it’s getting dark early”, “The metro is open until one o’clock, don’t forget”, “I’ll be very worried”, etc. .

Ultimately, the regulatory function is aimed at creating, maintaining and regulating relationships in human micro-collectives, that is, in the real environment in which a native speaker lives. Focusing on the addressee makes it similar to the communicative function (see § 11). Sometimes, along with the regulatory function, the function is also considered phatic*, or contact-setting. This means that a person always needs to enter into a conversation in a certain way (call out to the interlocutor, greet him, remind him of himself, etc.) and leave the conversation (say goodbye, thank him, etc.). But does establishing contact really boil down to exchanging phrases like “Hello” and “Goodbye”? The phatic function is much wider in its scope, and therefore it is not surprising that it is difficult to distinguish it from the regulatory function.

Let's try to remember: what do we talk about during the day with others? Is all this information vital for our well-being or directly influencing the behavior of the interlocutor? No, for the most part these are conversations, it would seem, “about nothing”, about trifles, about what the interlocutor already knows: about the weather and about mutual acquaintances, about politics and about football for men, about clothes and children for men. women; now they have been supplemented by comments on television series... There is no need to treat such monologues and dialogues ironically and arrogantly. In fact, these conversations are not about the weather and not about “rags”, but about each other, about you and me, about people. In order to occupy and then maintain a certain place in a micro-team (and this includes family, a circle of friends, a production team, housemates, even companions in a compartment, etc.), a person must talk with other members of this group.

Even if you accidentally find yourself in the cabin of a moving elevator with someone, you may feel some awkwardness and turn your back: the distance between you and your companion is too small to pretend that you do not notice each other, and to start a conversation too in general, it makes no sense - there is nothing to talk about, and the ride is too short... Here is a subtle observation in the story of the modern Russian prose writer V. Popov: “In the mornings we all went up in the elevator together... The elevator creaked, went up, and everything in it were silent. Everyone understood that they couldn’t stand like that, that they had to say something, say something quickly, in order to defuse this silence. But it was still too early to talk about work, and no one knew what to talk about. And there was such silence in this elevator, even if you jumped out while walking.”

In relatively permanent, long-term teams, establishing and maintaining verbal contacts is the most important means of regulating relationships. For example, you meet your neighbor Maria Ivanovna on the landing and tell her: “ Good morning, Marya Ivanna, you’re early today...” This phrase has a double bottom. Behind its “external” meaning one can read: “I remind you, Maria Ivanovna, I am your neighbor and would like to continue to remain on good terms with you.” There is nothing hypocritical or deceitful in such greetings; these are the rules of communication. And all these are very important, simply necessary phrases. We can figuratively say this: if you don’t praise the new beads on your friend today, and she, in turn, tomorrow doesn’t ask how your relationship with a certain mutual friend is developing, then in a couple of days a slight chill may run between you, and in a month you may even lose your girlfriend altogether... Would you like to try an experiment? Take my word for it.

Let me emphasize: communication with relatives, friends, neighbors, companions, and co-workers is necessary not only to maintain certain relationships in micro-teams. It is also important for the person himself - for his self-affirmation, for his realization as an individual. The fact is that the individual plays in society not only some constant social role(for example, “housewife”, “schoolboy”, “scientist”, “miner”, etc.), but also constantly tries on different social “masks”, for example: “guest”, “passenger”, “sick” ", "advisor", etc. And this whole “theater” exists mainly thanks to language: for each role, for each mask there is its own means of speech.

Of course, the regulatory and phatic functions of language are aimed not only at improving relations between members of a microcollective. Sometimes a person, on the contrary, resorts to them for “repressive” purposes - in order to alienate, push away his interlocutor. In other words, the tongue is used not only for mutual “stroking” (this is a term accepted in psychology), but also for “pricks” and “blows”. In the latter case, we are dealing with expressions of threat, insults, curses, curses, etc. And again: social convention is what establishes what is considered rude, offensive, humiliating for the interlocutor. In the Russian-speaking criminal world, one of the most powerful, deadly insults is “goat!” And in the aristocratic society of the century before last, the words scoundrel was enough to challenge the offender to a duel. Today, the language norm is “softening” and the bar for the repressive function is rising quite high. This means that a person perceives only very strong means as offensive...

In addition to the linguistic functions discussed above - communicative, mental, cognitive, nominative and regulatory (to which we “added” the phatic), we can distinguish other socially significant roles of language. In particular, ethnic function means that language unites an ethnic group (people), it helps to form a national identity. Aesthetic the function turns the text into a work of art: this is the sphere of creativity, fiction - it has already been discussed before. Emotionally expressive function allows a person to express his feelings, sensations, experiences in language... Magical(or incantatory) function is realized in special situations when the language is endowed with a kind of superhuman, “otherworldly” power. Examples include conspiracies, gods, oaths, curses and some other ritual types of texts.

And all this is not yet the full “range of responsibilities” of language in human society.
Tasks and exercises
1. Determine what functions of language are implemented in the following statements.

A) Kryzhovka (signboard on the railway station building).
b) Rediscount (sign on the store door).
c) Hello. My name is Sergey Alexandrovich (teacher entering class).
d) An equilateral rectangle is called a square (from the textbook).
e) “I won’t come to training on Wednesday, I won’t be able to.” - "You must Fedya, you must" (from a conversation on the street).
f) May you fail, you damned drunkard! (From an apartment squabble).
g) I studied the science of parting In the simple-haired complaints of the night (O. Mandelstam).

2. In one film “from life abroad” the hero asks the maid:

- Is Mrs. Mayons at home?
And receives the answer:
- Your mother is in the living room.

Why does the questioner call his mother so formally: “Mrs. Mayons”? And why does the maid choose a different name in her answer? What language functions are implemented in this dialogue?

3. What language functions are implemented in the following dialogue from V. Voinovich’s story “The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of the Soldier Ivan Chonkin”?

We were silent. Then Chonkin looked at the clear sky and said:
– Today, apparently, there will be a bucket.
“There will be a bucket if there is no rain,” said Lesha.
“There is no rain without clouds,” noted Chonkin. - And it happens that there are clouds, but there is still no rain.
“It happens like that,” agreed Lesha.
On this they parted.

4. Comment on the following dialogue between two characters in M. Twain’s novel “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.”

-... But if a person comes up to you and asks: “Parle vous France?” – what do you think?
“I won’t think of anything, I’ll take him and hit him on the head...

What language functions “do not work” in this case?

5. Very often a person starts a conversation with words like listen, do you know (do you know) or by addressing the interlocutor by name, although there is no one next to him, so this appeal also does not make much sense. Why is the speaker doing this?

6. Physics teaches: the main colors of the solar spectrum seven: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. Meanwhile, the simplest sets of paints or pencils include six colors, and these are other components: black, brown, red, yellow, green, blue. (When the set “expands”, blue, orange, purple, lemon and even white appear...) Which of these pictures of the world is more reflected in the language - “physical” or “everyday”? What linguistic facts can confirm this?

7. List the names of the fingers on your hand. Do all names come to your mind equally quickly? What is this connected with? Now list the names of the toes. What is the conclusion? How does this fit with the nominative function of language?

8. Show yourself where the person’s shin, ankle, ankle, wrist are located. Was this task easy for you? What conclusion follows from this about the relationship between the world of words and the world of things?

9. The following law operates in language: the more often a word is used in speech, the wider its meaning (or, in other words, the more meanings it has). How can this rule be justified? Demonstrate its effect using the following Russian nouns denoting body parts as an example.

Head, forehead, heel, shoulder, wrist, cheek, collarbone, arm, foot, leg, lower back, temple.

10. A tall and large person in Russian can be called something like this: atlas, giant, giant, hero, giant, colossus, Gulliver, Hercules, Antaeus, brute, big guy, big guy, elephant, closet… Imagine that you are tasked with choosing a name for a new ready-to-wear store in plus sizes (52 and up). Which title(s) will you choose and why?

11. Try to determine what concepts historically underlie the meanings of the following Russian words: guarantee, antediluvian, literally, proclaim, disgusting, restrained, liberated, compare, distribution, inaccessible, patronage, confirmation. What pattern can be seen in the semantic evolution of these words?

12. Below is a number of Belarusian nouns that do not have one-word correspondences in the Russian language (according to the dictionary “Original Words” by I. Shkraba). Translate these words into Russian. How to explain their “originality”? What function of language (or what functions) does the presence of such non-equivalent words correlate with?

Vyrai, paint, klek, grutsa, kaliva, vyaselnik, garbarnya.

13. Can you accurately determine the meaning of such words in Russian as brother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, sister-in-law? If not, why not?

14. In the book “Wild-growing useful plants of the USSR” (M., 1976) one can find many examples of how scientific (botanical) classification does not coincide with everyday (“naive”) classification. Thus, chestnut and oak belong to the beech family. Blueberries and apricots belong to the same family, Rosaceae. Walnut (hazel) belongs to the birch family. The fruits of pear, rowan, and hawthorn belong to the same class and are called apples.
How to explain these discrepancies?

15. Why does a person, in addition to his own name, also have various “middle names”: nicknames, nicknames, pseudonyms? Why should a person, when becoming a monk, renounce his worldly name and accept a new one - a spiritual one? What language functions are implemented in all these cases?

16. There is an unwritten rule that students adhere to when preparing for exams: “If you don’t know it yourself, explain it to a friend.” How can we explain the effect of this rule in relation to the basic functions of language?

*In Ancient Greek a-tomos literally meant 'indivisible'.

(To be continued)