The topic is concern about the offspring. Question: Why are various forms of care for offspring preserved, if all of them are not as effective as possible? Caring for the offspring to the independence of them

In order for the appearance to continue to exist, each generation should leave behind the offspring capable of reproduction. Most invertebrates and fish do not show care for offspring. They simply pull out thousands of eggs, only from the part of their young people appear, and a smaller number grows it and breeds. A more reliable way to continue the genus - after the birth of a limited number of young to provide them with food, protect against predators and even teach some skills. Many animals are concerned in different forms. Most of them are endowed with special parental instinctsHowever, individually acquired experience is also important among highly organized animals.

In the simplest form, the care of the offspring is available in all organisms and is expressed in the fact that the reproduction occurs only in conditions favorable for offspring - in the presence of food, suitable temperature, etc.

Caring for the offspring in many animals begins with preparations for his appearance. Often, seasonal animal migrations are associated with moving to reproduction sites, sometimes for many thousands of kilometers from habitats. Animals that do not commit such distant travel, also choose their nesting territory in advance, and many of them carefully guard it and prepare shelters - nests, holes, burgots adapted for future offspring.

Many parent worries are associated with the feeding of offspring.

Most insect care for the offspring is easy. The female enough to postpone the eggs in such a place where her larvae would find suitable food, such as cabbage white butterflies - cabbage. But some insects are specially prepared for the offspring of shelter and food, such as honey collectors - wasps and bees. And the wasps-hunters supply their larvae with crickets and grasshoppers. Before postponing the egg, Osa Sfex introduces poison to nerve nodes of their victim, so that it remains still, but lively and serves as a larvae with a margin of fresh food for the entire period of its development. Not only females are involved in the bugs-navigator in the harvesting of feed for offspring - not only females, but also males.

Many birds chicks are hatching completely helpless and need frequent and regular nutrition, some insectivore birds feed offspring to 200 times a day! Sometimes parents (jokes, cedings, etc.) Food for future chicks are inquired from autumn. The offspring of brood birds - chickens, ducks, geese, etc. - appears on the light of independent, able to swim, walk, peck. Parents remain only to drive them to feed, water, protect from enemies, heated (see Imprint).

Mammal females are fed by a young milk until they become able to eat other food. At some animals, this period lasts a few weeks, others have longer, and man-like monkeys are several years. Gradually, parents begin to teach children to adult food - show edible plants, teach to hunt.

Many animals protect offspring from enemies. In birds for this purpose, the colonial nesting is served, but also nesting single birds can also be united to drive a predator from their nests. For example, if on a tree where there is a nest of Raven, trying to climb a cat or even a person, 10-15 birds fly to it, which are thrown into the disturbance of calm.

Most mammals during the upbringing of the cub are more excluded than usual. Many large wild mammals attack people exactly when they threaten young or turn out to be close to them. Losika does not allow anyone to the cub, including other moose.

Many mammals and young birds remain with their parents, acquiring the skills necessary for living by imitating. This is a period of education of offspring. Parents teach young choosing and finding food, water and even healing plants, as well as shelters for sleep or in case of bad weather. These forms of parental care in mammals with a long lifetime are especially developed. Elephants and some human-like monkeys, the teenage period lasts up to 8-10 years. Not only parents take part in the upbringing of the offspring, but also almost all adult members of the group. Senior brothers, and especially sisters or just females that do not have this moment Own offspring, follow the young, help to feed him, care for him, play with him. In the event of the death of the mother, they tend to adopt the orphaned young. A similar collective form of care for the offspring significantly increases the chances of survival.

The highest development take care of the offspring in humans. He not only takes care of the livelihood of children, but also raises them, gives them their life experience and knowledge accumulated in history.

why are various forms of care for offspring preserved, if all of them are not as effective as possible?

Answers:

So the nature is arranged. These forms of behavior are regulated mainly by hormones allocated by the pituitary gland and ovary. In order for the appearance to continue to exist, each generation should leave behind the offspring capable of reproduction. Most invertebrates and fish do not show care for offspring. They simply pull out thousands of eggs, only from the part of their young people appear, and a smaller number grows it and breeds. A more reliable way to continue the genus - after the birth of a limited number of young to provide them with food, protect against predators and even teach some skills. Many animals are concerned in different forms. Most of them are endowed with special parental instincts, but individually acquired experience is also important in high-organized animals.

Types of care for offspring

In the animal world there are a variety of forms of care for offspring: from the complete absence of up to the most complex and long-term relationship between children and parents. In the simplest form, concern about the offspring is available in all organisms and is expressed in the fact that the reproduction occurs only in conditions favorable for offspring, if there is food, suitable temperature, etc.

1. Full absence of care for offspring. Most invertebrates and fish do not show care for offspring. The success of the existence of such species ensures the mass of their breeding. In the ocean's expanses, many types of invertebrates and fish, gagging by gigantic flocks, postpone millions of eggs, which immediately eat a huge number of diverse carnivorous creatures. The only rescue for such species is colossal fecundity, which allows you to survive and live to a hawk state minimal and necessary for the existence of a population of the number of descendants. Sotor and millions are calculated by the number of eggs in many species of fish, laying caviar in the thickness of water. So, the female dwelling in northern Seas A large sea pussy - Molva pulls out for one season to 60 million, and the giant sea fish-moon, reaching the weight of one and a half tons, throws into the thickness of ocean waters to 300 million eggs. The will of the case of the case of fertilized eggs, mixing with plankton or dropping to the bottom, dying in irrelevant quantities. The same fate comprehends the larvae from caviar.

2. Entering pending eggs on the body of one of the parents. The females of many marine animals attach pending eggs directly to their body and wear them, as well as the young, to gain independence. Such behavior is observed in many aquatic animals: marine stars, shrimp and other crustaceans. Such behavior is the following step of complication of care for offspring, but in general it is not particularly inventive.

The number of dedicated eggs is inversely proportional to the level of parental care. This pattern is well confirmed by starfishes, among which are observed as species that leave the eggs directly into the water, where they are fertilized with sperm of several males, and the species that carry eggs on their own body. At the species of the first group, the number of eggs ripening in the body of eggs reaches 200 million, while nautical stars showing care for offspring, the number of pending eggs does not exceed several hundred.

4. Construction of nests and their protection before the birth of offspring. A more advanced type of care for the offspring can be considered the construction of the nest, laying there eggs or caviar and its protection until the younger young people leave it. Such behavior is characteristic of a number of species of fish, spiders, octopus, some multi-nonexins, etc. To the similar level of concern can be attributed to the hatching of caviar and fry in the mouth of the males of some fish, as well as caviar and tadpoles on the hind legs of the toad-obstacles or on the back of the Suriname Pippi Pippi. In this case, the mouth or spin is performed by the socket functions. For this level, there is a lack of all interest on the part of parents to the juvenile, a slightly acquiring independence.

5. Caring for offspring to their independence. Long-term care for the offspring is noted in some types of invertebrates and fish. Great perfection achieves care of the offspring in public insects.

Many examples different types Parental behavior demonstrate amphibians. At the highest vertebrates there are different ways of care for offspring, which depend primarily from the level of maturity of newborns.

In the most common features, among them the following groups of parental behavior can be distinguished:

cultivation of offspring one female or one male;

cultivation of offspring by both parents;

growing a cub in a complex family group.

The meaning of care for offspring

Of great importance, especially in unripe-finding animals, becomes parental care for the offspring, i.e., animal actions, providing or improving the conditions for the survival and development of offspring. In the process of evolution, many groups of animals emerged adaptations to protect and power the developing offspring from the parent individual. This includes the passage of embryonic stages of development in the body of the mother. However, the concept of "care of the offspring" applies only to the posthamsbrion period. In some cases, care for the offspring is limited to the creation of asylum and harvesting for future offspring, but the mother's individual does not meet with him (preventive convergence concern). So, some OSS lay eggs on the insects paralyzed by them, which are hiding in specially dug minks, but then no longer care about the hatched larvae.

A higher form of care for offspring is the care of the offspring, manifested in two basic forms: passive and active. In the first case, adult individuals carry eggs or young animals in special skin grooves, folds, bags. Young animals sometimes feed on the secretions of the maternal individual. This form of care for the offspring is found in certain types of needle-born, crustaceans, mollusks, spiders, fish (seahorse and needle, some tropical 1-shaped - cichlids), amphibians (toad-hanging, American Pipa, Gastrotueca Marsupiata frog), lower mammals (echidna, Temple). With the actively care of the offspring, adults perform specific actions aimed at ensuring all or many areas of its livelihoods - insect larvae, fishes, chicks, young mammals. In addition to the device of shelters, feeding, heating, protection, cleaning of the body surface, etc. Parents in many higher animals (birds and mammals) are also trained their offspring (for example, finding food, recognize enemies, etc.).

It is the active care for the offspring, a highly developed concern for Him makes it possible to be immature, and thereby all the characteristics of mental development. At the same time, the evolution of care for the offspring was marked, on the one hand, the intensification and differentiation of the actions of the parents in relation to the offspring, on the other hand, the strengthening of its dependence on adult animals. At the same time, fertility decreased sharply. However, the increasing care for the offspring entails and the growing contradiction between the needs of the parental individual and its offspring. This contradiction is regulated by natural selection towards the greatest progress of the species. V. A. Wagner described this formula: the minimum of the victims of the mother is the maximum of the requirements of the offspring.

Thus, progressive evolutionary acquisitions that have ensured a more flexible adaptation of a growing organism to the conditions of its life in postnatal ontogenesis, have a very complex nature and include different forms of care for offspring depending on the degree of sensitiveness. The entire complex of these factors is determined in each case a specific course of postnatal development of behavior.

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As you know, for the successful existence of a biological species, every generation of its representatives should leave after themselves the offspring capable of reproduction. In the process of childbirth and the subsequent care process, the proceedings are mainly implemented by instinctive behavior. So, for example, immediately after the release of the fetus, the mammal female frees it from the fetal shells, overbinds the umbilical cord, eats the fetal shells and the last and actively licks the newborn. Young females that do not carry out primary care for them, in nature are doomed to death, it is eliminated with them and this sign itself is, to a large extent hereditaryly determined.

Types of care for offspring

In the animal world there are a variety of forms of care for offspring: from the complete absence of up to the most complex and long-term relationship between children and parents.

Full absence of care for offspring

Note that in the simplest form, the concern for the offspring is available in all organisms and is expressed in the fact that the reproduction occurs only in conditions favorable for offspring - in the presence of food, suitable temperature, etc. In the future, most invertebrates and fish do not show care for offspring. The success of the existence of such species ensures the mass of their breeding. In the ocean's expanses, many types of invertebrates and fish, gagging by gigantic flocks, postpone millions of eggs, which immediately eat a huge number of diverse carnivorous creatures. The only rescue for such species is colossal fecundity, which allows you to survive and live to a hawk state minimal and necessary for the existence of a population of the number of descendants. Sotor and millions are calculated by the number of eggs in many species of fish, laying caviar in the thickness of water. So, a large sea pussy in the northern seas in the northern seas - Molva sweeps over a single season to 60 million icons, and the giant sea fish-moon, reaching the weight of one and a half tons, throws into the thickness of the ocean waters to 300 million eggs. The case provided by the case of fertilized eggs, mixing with a plankton or dropping to the bottom, dying in reasonable quantities. The same fate comprehends the larvae from caviar, but the survivors are still enough to maintain the size of the species.

Entering pending eggs on the body of one of the parents

The female of many marine animals attach pending eggs directly to their body and wear them, as well as the tenders of themselves - before the independence of independence. Such behavior is observed in many water animals: marine stars, shrimps and other crustaceans (Fig. 12.9). Such behavior is the following step of complication of care for offspring, but in general it is not particularly inventive.

Fig. 12.9.

passive way of care for offspring

The number of dedicated eggs is inversely proportional to the level of parental care. This pattern is well confirmed by starfishes, among which are observed as species that leave the eggs directly into the water, where they are fertilized with sperm of several males, and the species that carry eggs on their own body. At the species of the first group, the number of eggs ripening in the body of eggs reaches 200 million, whereas of marine stars showing care for offspring, the number of deferred eggs does not exceed a few hundred.

Eggs tab in pre-found or specially prepared by the female environment

Construction of nests and their protection before the birth of offspring

A more advanced type of care for the offspring can be considered the construction of the nest, laying there eggs or caviar and its protection until the younger young people leave it. Such behavior is characteristic of a number of species of fish, spiders, octopus, some multi-nonexins, etc. To the same level of concern can be attributed to the hatching of caviar and fry in the mouth of the males of some fish, as well as caviar and tadpoles on the hind legs of the toad-obstacles. For the described level, there is a lack of all interest from parents to the juvenile, which acquires independence.

Fig. 12.10.

Caring for the offspring to the independence of them

Long-term care for the offspring is noted in some types of invertebrates and fish. Great perfection achieves care of the offspring in public insects.

Many examples of different types of parental behaviors demonstrate amphibians (Fig. 12.10). At the highest vertebrates there are different ways of care for offspring, which depend primarily from the level of maturity of newborns. In the most common features, among them the following groups of parental behavior can be distinguished:

- growing offspring one female or one male;
- growing offspring of both parents;
- Growing a cub in a complex family group.