The system under consideration has such an element. The concept of the system and its elements. System-forming and auxiliary elements

The system (in general view) can be characterized as something whole, consisting of interconnected and interdependent parts, the interaction of which gives rise to new integrative qualities that are not inherent in the individual components

Any system has two main content characteristics.

Firstly, integrity: the system represents a set of specific ones, with properties inherent only to them and the nature of the interconnection of parts.

Secondly, divisibility: the system consists of subsystems that also have system properties, that is, they can be represented as lower-level systems.

A control (management) system is a system in which control (management) functions are implemented.

The control system can be represented as the interaction of three elements. The first element is the control subject. As the second control element (management) or the control part of the system that has a managerial impact, the third element of the system is the control object.

Control subsystem is a set of enterprise management bodies, controlled – a set of workshops, sections, teams and workplaces. The control and managed subsystems are interconnected by command flows and reverse information flows, reflecting the reaction of the managed subsystem to incoming commands.

The control subsystem includes a number of elements, the simultaneous functioning of which allows you to effectively manage the enterprise.

These include:

Organization of management (management functions and management structures);

Management methods (economic, administrative-legal, organizational, socio-psychological);

Control technology;

Control technology.

The object of management is an employee, a group of persons, or a work collective. Objects of management can also be: resources, processes, results, all types of human activity.

Organizations in the process of their activities use material, labor, financial, information, technological and other resources. Accordingly, the following can act as management objects - resources:
- inventory;

Financial resources;

Information array;

Organization personnel.

In any organization, many processes take place, from the management process to the production process. The most important parts of the production process are supply, production and distribution of products. In accordance with this, the following can act as control objects - processes:

Manufacturing process;

Trade and technological process;

Marketing activities of the enterprise;

Logistics and technical supply of the enterprise, etc.

The results (outputs of the system) include: profit, profitability, volumes of production and sales of products, costs, product quality, etc. Accordingly, the following can serve as control objects - results:
- quality of goods produced or services provided;

Results of management or production activities;

Labor productivity;

Production or management costs, etc.

An enterprise as an open system can be represented as follows:

Control system modern organization(enterprise) must meet the following basic requirements:

Have high flexibility;

Be adequate to complex production technology, requiring appropriate forms of control, organization and division of labor;

Respond promptly to changes in factors in the external and internal environment of the enterprise, market conditions;

Take into account competition in the relevant market of goods (services);

Take into account the requirements for the quality of customer service and fulfillment of contracts;

Ensure high efficiency of enterprise management;

Contribute to the development of the organization;

Ensure the implementation of scientific achievements and best practices;

Have the ability to self-regulate so that any deviations from the norm (in cost, quality, timing, etc.) are quickly recorded (ideally automatically) and countermeasures are immediately developed and taken to return the management system to its previous normal state.

An essential element of any management system is communication. Communication can be defined as an important channel for the exchange of matter, energy, and information between subjects for management purposes and interaction. A single act of communication is impact.

Links can be forward, backward, vertical, horizontal, etc.

Direct communication is the impact of the subject of management on the object in the form of management commands, decisions, recommendations, etc.

Feedback is information coming from the control object to the control subject. The existence of feedback means that the result of the functioning of the control object in a certain way influences the influences received on it. As a rule, feedback acts as an important regulator in a control system.

The given direct and reverse connections are classified as vertical. In addition to them, there are also horizontal connections that make it possible to implement informal relationships that facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills, ensuring coordination of the actions of subjects of the same level to achieve the goals set for it by the management system.

Thus, management is a management system that ensures the effective functioning and development of an organization in a competitive environment.

5. Organization: concept, characteristics, classification

Company - This is an independent economic entity created by an entrepreneur or an association of entrepreneurs to produce products, perform work and provide services in order to satisfy public needs and make a profit.

Enterprises specializing in the production of homogeneous products form the corresponding branches of material production: industry, agriculture, transport, construction, etc. They constitute the structure of the industry, determine its profile and scale. In addition, enterprises and organizations form the territorial specialization of cities and regions in which they are located. Thus, enterprises and their teams represent the main elements from which industry and territorial complexes are simultaneously formed. Therefore, enterprises act as the main links of the national economic complex.

Currently, the concept of “firm” is becoming increasingly widespread in domestic practice. The latter is often used as a synonym for enterprise, which contradicts its semantic purpose. Thus, if an enterprise plays the role of a direct commodity producer, then the firm is called upon to play the role of an entrepreneur who creates or transforms an enterprise that provides financing for their activities. The very name of the company, its trademark, used when concluding business contracts for goods, their packaging, allows you to individualize a specific enterprise and the activities of the company, in contrast to other manufacturers of homogeneous products.

Economic role of the enterprise is to satisfy the needs of consumers and provide income to its employees, owners and suppliers.

Operating in a certain territory (city, district, region, republic), enterprises ensure its well-being, on which they themselves depend. The enterprise must organize its activities, focus on people, that is, it also plays social role.

Let's consider economic and social functions enterprises in three aspects:

The role of the enterprise in relation to its customers,

The role of the enterprise in relation to its employees,

The role of the enterprise in relation to the owner of the enterprise's property.

Most of the company's products are intended for sale on the market to meet the needs of their clients. For this, it makes a profit, so the company needs a stable clientele. For its part, the consumer needs goods of a certain quality at affordable prices. A strong relationship is created between them, which can only exist and strengthen if both parties are satisfied with their connections. Only by serving customers can an enterprise truly satisfy their needs and thereby realize profits. Thus, the role of an enterprise in relation to its customers is to serve them.

Enterprises ultimately ensure the harmonious development of an economy focused on meeting the needs recognized as the most beneficial for individuals and society.

In relation to to your employees the enterprise must provide them:

1) the necessary technical means allowing personnel to achieve the greatest productivity,

2) the best working conditions, an environment in which staff are happy to work,

3) appropriate wages,

4) employment protection.

The role of the enterprise in relation to the owner of the property comes down to generating the profit necessary to:

1) ensure the stability necessary for the enterprise itself and its personnel,

2) not cause damage to their employees, as well as creditors, society in the event of a disruption in the normal functioning of the enterprise,

3) ensure self-financing of the enterprise.

Purpose of the enterprise:

1) meeting social needs,

2) making a profit.

The following can be distinguished signs of the enterprise.

1. An enterprise is, first of all, organization- those. a harmonious combination of the material elements of production and labor.

For the functioning of such an organization, a complex is required, including a plot of land, buildings, structures, and equipment. In addition to the means of labor for production economic activity labor is also needed.

2. Any enterprise produces products or provides services. This product is used as:

Item of consumption,

Means of production in new production cycles.

The enterprise is obliged to produce high-quality products at optimal costs to better satisfy social needs and increase the well-being of the enterprise staff.

3. The enterprise is legal entity having separate property in ownership, economic management or management and being liable for its obligations with this property.

4. The enterprise carries out any types of activities that are provided for by its charter and not prohibited by current legislation.

5. Enterprise:

Independently organizes production in accordance with its goals,

Independently selects partners for business activities,

Independently manages finished products,

Independently sells finished products through the most profitable channels and at reasonable prices,

Manages his income independently.

6. Each enterprise, as an independent economic entity with the rights of a legal entity, finds all the funds for its activities on market(money, goods, labor, information). The company sells its products on the market. An enterprise can function stably only if it has normal, uninterrupted interaction with the market environment. Market functions: informational, pricing.

7. The essential features of a modern enterprise should be dynamism, focus on the future. It must develop, produce and provide new products to the market, introduce new methods of production and its organization, distribution, find new markets for its products, and develop new sources of raw materials and energy. The successful operation of an enterprise in the era of scientific and technological progress largely depends on the accuracy of forecasts - both short-term and long-term. The activities of the enterprise and its concerns should be turned to the future. The enterprise must know the future needs for its products and prepare in a timely manner to meet them. This increases the importance of conducting research, scientific market research, applying forecasting methods, and implementing training, retraining and advanced training programs for personnel.

Classification of enterprises. Organizational and legal forms of enterprises

Businesses can be classified by:

Economic sector;

Object of activity;

Organizational and legal form;

Purposes of activity;

Sizes;

Type of production processes;

Degrees of specialization.

By economic sector differentiate enterprises in the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.

Primary sector enterprises– directly exploit natural resources (for example, oil production) and provide raw materials for the manufacturing industry (for example, fish production).

Secondary sector enterprises– enterprises that transform raw materials into means of production and consumer goods (for example, NP and NHP).

Tertiary sector enterprises (service sector)– provide various services (for example, transport, education, banks, medical institutions).

By object of activity differentiate enterprises: Agriculture, transport, construction, trade, service providers, industrial.

By activity goals distinguish:

Enterprises pursuing, in addition to meeting the needs of members of society, making a profit - commercial;

Enterprises that satisfy the personal or collective needs of members of society and do not set a goal of making a profit - non-profit.

By size distinguish: small, medium, large and very large enterprises.

By type of production process distinguish between enterprises mass, serial and single production.

By degree of specialization distinguish: specialized, diversified and combined.

In accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, the following are created and carry out their production and economic activities, depending on the form of ownership: organizational and legal forms enterprises:

State;

Municipal;

Individual;

Business partnerships;

Economic societies;

Consumer cooperatives;

Institutions;

Public and religious organizations (associations);

Joint-stock companies (CJSC, OJSC);

Enterprises created on the basis of lease, etc.

According to Russian legislation company – an independent economic entity (legal entity) created to conduct business activities, which are carried out for the purpose of making profit and meeting public needs.

The enterprise acts as a legal entity, which is determined by a set of characteristics:

1. Separateness of one’s property;

2. Responsible for obligations with this property of his;

3. Availability of a bank account;

4. Acts on his own behalf.

The separation of assets is expressed by the presence of an independent balance sheet on which the property of the enterprise is listed.

Let us consider in more detail the classification of enterprises by organizational and legal form.

In general terms, the concept of a system (from the Greek systema - a whole made up of parts; a connection) is defined as a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, forming a certain integrity, unity.

System is an object of any nature or a set of interacting objects of any nature, including different natures, that have a pronounced systemic property (properties), that is, a property that none of the parts of the system has in any way of its division.

System parts, uniting some of the related elements of the entire system are called subsystems.

Integration of multiple systems, which has a systemic property, is called a supersystem or a system of a higher order.

Element of the system is an object (part of a system) with uniquely defined known properties.

The system (subsystem, element) has inputs and outputs. An input is a discrete or continuous set of contacts through which the influence of the environment is transmitted to the system. An output is a set of contacts through which the system influences the environment.

Any element of the system has at least one output and one input. Impact manifests itself in the transfer of matter, energy, information, or a combination of these components.

Accordingly, we can talk about material, energy or information exchange between the system and the environment (metabolism).

The concepts of “element”, “subsystem”, “system”, “supersystem” are mutually transformable: the system can be considered as an element of a higher order system, and the element - as a system. The attitude towards the system is determined not only by its content, but also by point of view.

A complex system is understood as a system the number of subsystems of which is quite large and whose composition is heterogeneous.

Everything that is not part of the system belongs to the external environment. The system and its external environment are separated by a boundary.

Wednesday it is the environment with which the system interacts. Systems interacting with the environment are called open. Closed (closed) systems do not have an environment. The environment for one of the subsystems can be the remaining subsystems or part of them, as well as other systems. The environment is also a system.

The state of a system is understood as an ordered set of internal and external values parameters that determine the course of processes occurring in the system. The set of states of a system can be finite, countable or infinite. The behavior of a system is a sequence of reactions of the system to an external influence unfolded in time.

Complex systems have special properties.

These special properties are:

uniqueness: each system does not have complete analogues of its behavior.
weakly predictable: no amount of detailed knowledge of the morphology (structure and connections) and functions of elements (subsystems) allows one to determine the functions of an object. No amount of detailed and accurate knowledge of the behavior of an object in the past allows one to accurately predict its behavior in the future.
expediency: the ability of a system to carry out behavior aimed at achieving a specific goal.
stationarity: the probability of being in a given state, the system’s desire for the main process, the ability to eliminate the consequences of external and internal random influences.

In general, the system model expresses a unique relationship between the state of the input X and the state of the output Y, specified using the transition function: Y=R(X), where R is the transformation operator (R-transformation).

There are models that do not contain R-transformation. These are chaotic, weakly organized, weakly structured, unstable models in which many independent events collide and do not have stable probability distributions, reflecting a level of knowledge of systems at which it is impossible to compile stable morphological or functional descriptions. Such systems can only be described informationally.

Complex systems, in order to realize their internal goals, are able, based on a specific input state (i.e., situation), to change the R-transformation. Such systems also include management systems.

When considering management systems, instead of the term “transformation operator”, depending on the approach, it is advisable to use the corresponding concepts “operation”, “function”, “process”, “project”, “system”, etc...

The interaction of subsystems in a system can be direct or indirect, in which it is carried out through intermediate subsystems.

Structure is called the set of all possible relationships between subsystems and elements within the system.

In system models, three classes of structures are distinguished:

hierarchical;
non-hierarchical;
mixed.

Hierarchical structures are characterized by the presence of control (command) subsystems (elements, functions).

In non-hierarchical structures, control functions are distributed among all elements or groups of elements.

A structure that satisfies the following conditions is called hierarchical:

each subsystem is either controlled or subordinate, or both at the same time;
there is at least one only subordinate subsystem;
there is one and only one control subsystem;
any subordinate subsystem directly interacts with one and only one control one.

A hierarchical structure in which there is at least one controlling and at the same time subordinate subsystem is called multi-level. For her it is true:

a higher-level subsystem deals with broader aspects of the behavior of the system as a whole;
the time for converting input components into output components increases with increasing level of the control subsystem;
subsystems at higher levels of the hierarchical structure deal with slower aspects of system behavior.

An example of hierarchical systems is the process landscape of an organization and its organizational structure.

A leading subsystem is one that satisfies the following requirements:

the subsystem does not have deterministic interaction with any subsystem;
the subsystem is controlling in relation to the part ( the largest number) subsystems;
the subsystem is either not controlled or is controlled by the smallest (compared to the other) number of subsystems.

As an example of a leading system, we can consider the management structure of the holding in relation to the management systems of the holding organizations if they have autonomy of activity.

Non-hierarchical structures are derived from a multi-connected structure, where each subsystem directly interacts with every other.

For them it is true:

there is at least one subsystem that is neither controlling nor subordinate;
there is no subsystem that is only a manager;
there is no subsystem that is only subordinate;
any subordinate subsystem directly interacts with more than one control one.

Non-hierarchical structures without leaders are called equilibrium.

An example of an equilibrium non-hierarchical structure without leaders is the Supplier-Consumer relationship.

Mixed structures are various combinations of hierarchical and non-hierarchical structures.

The concept of structure also includes configuration, which describes the general geometric properties of the system. The configuration can be: point, linear, flat or volumetric-spiral, flat, volumetric.

The structure of the system is realized using connections. Connections are subsystems (elements) that directly interact between other subsystems and do not make decisions. Communications are divided into direct and reverse.

Direct connections are divided into the following subclasses:

strengthening (weakening);
lagging;
selective.

Feedbacks are divided into the following subclasses:

by action: positive and negative;
by threshold: smooth and threshold;
by time of action: instantaneous, delayed, advanced;
by nature: stable and unstable.

Positive feedback strengthens the original process, negative feedback weakens it.

Smooth feedback operates over the entire range of changes in the output process.

Threshold feedback operates when the controlled value exceeds a certain value (lower threshold) or does not reach an acceptable value (upper threshold). Two-threshold feedback is possible.

Unstable feedbacks are:

deterministic;
random;
adaptive.

Deterministic feedbacks change their parameters according to a predetermined law, as a function of time, spatial position or other conditions.

Random feedbacks arise due to unintended influences.

Adaptive feedbacks are created randomly, but stabilize and exist for a long time.

Feedback is the main constructive device with the help of which system properties are formed.

By applying and integrating various types of feedback, the following functions of action on controlled processes can be formed:

strengthening (weakening);
stabilization;
delay for a constant time (or depending on some process parameters);
memorization;
reproduction or repetition;
transformation;
analysis - recognition and identification of subprocesses;
synthesis - combining subprocesses;
comparison of processes;
prediction and formation of processes.

A goal-oriented system must have the ability to model and predict the situation, for which it must have the following properties:

perceive and recognize external influences, forming an adequate or inadequate image of the environment.
have a priori information about the environment, stored in the form of images of the environment.
have information about itself, about its properties and capabilities, stored in the form of morphological, functional, informational and other images of the system.

As a result of comparison, recognition and transformation of information images, the system carries out:

impact on the environment (the actual activity of the system);
influence on oneself (transformation of elements and/or their interactions).

To store images, the system must have an information device, the elements (subsystems) of which would be in a certain correspondence (morphism) with the displayed elements (subsystems) of the system and the external environment.

The following types of morphism are distinguished:

homeomorphism - each subsystem of one system is connected with one and only one subsystem of another system.
heteromorphism - the relationship between subsystems is mutually ambiguous.
polymorphism - many subsystems are interconnected.
centromorphism - all subsystems of one system are connected to one subsystem of another system.
automorphism is a connection between subsystems of one system.

The term "system" is defined using terms such as "connection" (or "interrelationship"), "element", "whole", "unity". In purely verbal formulations one can still find agreement, but representatives of different sciences put such different meanings into these words that in fact their agreement is only visible: for some, “connection” is simply a geometric relationship of parts; for others ¾ dependence between parts or sides of the whole; Some will call a geometric relationship a “structure,” others will reduce it to a “set” of elements.

Often theoretical definitions diverge from empirical material. So, for example, the famous English cyberneticist St. Beer calls the interconnection of the most diverse elements a system, and gives as an example billiards, in which there are actually no interrelations, but only the functional unity of the whole. Therefore, it would probably be most correct to say that at present there are no satisfactory, sufficiently widely accepted concepts of system and structure.

The society for the development of “ general theory systems". G. H. Goode and R. E. McCall, who analyze "large scale" systems, refuse to make any attempt to define precisely the boundaries delineating the systems they consider. “As is usually the case in any region,” they note, “these boundaries lie over wide, undefined territories, and the search for their exact position would give rise to great but fruitless debate.” And in fact, the position they expressed is the only one widely accepted among those who study specific systems and structures.

Based on modern works, various objects of reality can be considered systems: 1) material and ideal objects; 2) ideal models and structures built by people based on them; 3) ideal models; 4) material objects built by people:

If we agree with Averyanov’s statement that “systematicity is an attributive property of matter,” then we should proceed from the first concept. When using the broadest approach, everything appears to be systemic. In this case, the system will be space, and science, and a machine built on the basis of science. This approach leads to a simplification of the content of systematicity and reduces the scientific task to understanding the systematicity of each object.

“Material systems consist of objects that exist objectively, ideal systems consist of ideal objects that exist only in consciousness.” There is an opinion that only the objective can be considered a system. “A system is, first of all, not a symbolic model of an object, but the object itself, taken in the process of development.”

Recognition of miraculous objects of reality by systems in itself gives little. The systemic effect involves the construction of a systemic information sign model of a given object. Only after a certain subjectification of the objective can the latter truly become a “system” and can be used in practical activity.

“The question is not whether there is movement, but how to express it in the logic of concepts.” Accordingly, it is not the recognition of an object of reality by a system, but how its systematicity can be expressed in concepts. Systematicity in itself becomes systematicity for people only after people master the method of systemic reproduction in the logic of the concepts of systemic objects.

There are concepts whose authors recognize only subjective phenomena as systemic. “A real object exists independently of us, objectively, but a system is a subjective construction.” In this case, there were no systems before the advent of intelligent subjects. People themselves, as biological beings, are not systemic. Only the products of people’s labor can be systematic; systematicity is a style of ideal reflection of the world. In this case, two concepts are possible. In one case, only the ideal is recognized as systemic, and in the other, only the material. Any ideal (non-materialized and materialized.) can be considered a system.

When choosing one of these approaches, many issues of its interpretation will be resolved differently. In accordance with the first, everything real can be a system, and in accordance with the second approach, a system is a certain level of development of an ideal reflection of the ordered and material devices created on their basis.

Different approaches can be considered justified to a certain extent. In the current practice of determining terms, more cannot be achieved. Therefore, moving away from polemics on this issue, let us pay attention, first of all, to the subordination of the types of the man-made systemic world.

"... Until the end of the last century, natural science was predominantly a collecting science, a science about completed objects. In our century, it has become essentially an ordering science, a science about processes, about the origin and development of these objects and about the connection connecting these processes of nature into one great whole." Difficulties “only begin when they begin to consider and organize the material...”.

Consideration of the orderliness of the material should be based on a systematic approach to it. In this case, one can trace the growth of the ordering of the material and its complexity during the transition to more developed levels of the material. Order should be considered at each level of materiality with a more specific subordination of objects. Here one can also observe an increase in complexity and ordering, although in some cases reverse processes also take place, i.e. growth of entropy based on destruction.

In general, the nature of the transitions between chaos and order can be various types. A scientific understanding of these transitions involves identifying a hierarchical system of terminological expression for these transitions.

Considering nature from the point of view of order in it, we can distinguish a number of its types and parts. The parts of nature with the least order exist in a chaotic state, and those with the maximum order represent systems. The ordered arose from the disordered. Chaos turns into order.

The tendency to increase complexity and increase the organization of a system is denoted by the term negaentropy. The tendency of disorganization, simplification of the system, destruction or death of systems is called entropy.

Ambiguous judgments have been made about the subordination of the elements of nature from the point of view of its orderliness. It is difficult to agree that entropy and chaos are growing in nature. Entropy decreases, i.e. Negaentropicity and orderliness increases. In our world, it is not destructive, but creative processes that predominate. Therefore, entropy decreases and order increases. At the same time, it is quite possible to assume that in nature there is not a permanent tendency to increase order, but cyclicity, when entropic tendencies predominate in certain periods, and non-entropic tendencies in others. But there is no doubt that in order for entropic (i.e., destructive, destructive) processes to take place, it is necessary that a reserve of order was created in the previous period, and the degree of order was higher. This can only be the result of the growth of order in the previous period of time, when an appropriate level (stock) of organization must be created.

The degree of orderliness of all material things is growing, including growing at our material level, at least in our historical period and in “our corner of the universe.” "Society (the highest form of development of the non-entropic tendency of living nature."

Systematic ordering of the material can only be the result of purposeful activity. However, in addition to such a strict, but not fully substantiated approach, the term system can also be used to refer to material objects that arose spontaneously.

Chaos turns into order through a certain process, which can be divided into a number of states: set, collection, complex, organism, system, cladogram.

A set is a collection that has a common specific property. When considering a set, attention is paid to this common element, which to some extent organizes this set;

A set is a number of objects that make up a unity. It may simply be a mechanical unit;

Complex - any part of reality, considered as an independent, integral object;

An organism is a certain type of aggregate and plurality, inherent in living beings and characterized by unity and integrity;

A system is a product of the creative activity of people who have not sufficiently understood the very essence of systematicity;

The cladogram is a real, pragmatic system that underlies biology and is a universal method of explaining reality based on dialectical logic.

The system consists of heterogeneous elements. The components of the system differ in their functional characteristics. The degree of development of the systematic nature of each object of reality is determined by the number of constituent elements (the more there are, the more developed the system), the degree of their functional difference, and integration.

The emergence of systematicity leads to an increase in orderliness and represents a qualitative leap in the growth of orderliness. However, order at the system level continues to grow and may vary. At the same time, the degree of difference in the ordering of system objects is also different. Progress consists in the emergence of increasingly ordered systems.

The ideal is ordered in a heterogeneous way. The progress of ways to organize the ideal is characterized in the same way as any other developing phenomenon.

The system of ideal ordering methods consists of different elements that are not equally developed. They should be viewed through the lens of the most developed method. Nodal points of development integration process ideally have not been widely accepted, so their understanding needs to be given special attention.

Ordering is the initial integration of the ideal. In this case, at least some ordering of the ideal takes place, for example, arranging nails by size.

Cataloging is a more complex system of ordering based on the ordering of object names, such as in a dictionary or library.

Grouping is the ordering of objects according to a certain criterion.

Typification can be presented as a more developed type of ordering based on the formation of many forms.

Classification is a more developed method of integration. There are more requirements for it than for typing.

Systematization is the most developed type of integration compared to ordering, typing and classification. Systematics is a classification based on the development of an object.

In that sphere of reality where its elements cannot be ordered on the basis of universal principles of systematization, they should be arranged differently, even cataloged - a simple list of key issues.

Systematization is an element, first of all, of scientific existence; systematization is an ideal way of demonstrating the orderliness of material things. On this basis, the most developed part of the material arises - reality systematically constructed by people. The material is initially ordered spontaneously. At a certain stage of ordering the material, it begins to be reflected ideally. At a certain stage of development of the material and ideal, systematization becomes the main way of reflecting the ordering material and the existence of a certain part of it.

Ordering is not systematization. Systematization is not just ordering, but represents the ordering of the ideal for a more adequate reflection of the material and the construction of material systems. Systematization is not a property of the material itself, but a property of the ideal and the result of human activity. The orderliness of the material is more adequately reflected by the ideal when the latter becomes systemic. Usually people systematize not the material, but the ideal expression of the material. A philatelist organizes stamps by arranging them in a certain order. This represents a systematization of the material on the basis of a systematized ideal. Typically, taxonomists rearrange not material objects relative to each other, but their ideal expression. Figuratively speaking, the animal system is built on paper, and not in the form of a zoo, where the biospecies themselves are located relative to each other. The taxonomy of the ideal is the starting point for the conscious ordering of material objects.

The systematization of the material is a special case of systematization and can be understood as secondary in comparison with the systematization of the ideal expression of the material.

All objects of reality can be divided into several types: self-developing, self-increasing, self-organizing, self-governing.

The degree of order increases in the specified sequence. The first two forms of objects are, in general, pre-organic, and the next two are associated with life. At the same time, self-governing objects, in our opinion, are associated exclusively with supraorganismal connections of the highest type, i.e. with human society.

Self-governing objects are diverse. They are based on the fact that their constituent elements are ideal systems that reflect reality. Self-governing objects cannot exist without ideal subsystems. The transition from self-organizing to self-governing objects is associated with the construction of ideal systems.

Systematization is a way of building, first of all, ideal systems. At the same time, it is believed that the systematization of the ideal acts as the starting point for the construction of material system objects (machines, devices, etc.).

When considering the systematization of the ideal, one should take into account the position of F. Engels, who noted that “empirical natural science has accumulated such a mass of positive material that in each individual area of research the need to organize this material systematically and in accordance with its internal connections has become absolutely inescapable.”

“So, systematicity as a principle of cognition forms only one of the facets of the process of theoretical study of reality.”

Analysis of the working definition of the system allows us to highlight some of its general properties:

· any system is a complex of interconnected elements;

· the system forms a special unity with the external environment;

· any system is an element of a higher order system;

· the elements that make up the system, in turn, act as systems of a lower order.

These properties can be analyzed using Fig. 2.7 (A - system; B and D - elements of system A; C - element of system B).

Element B, serving as an element of system A, in turn, is a lower-level system, which consists of its own elements, including, for example, element C. And if we consider element B as a system interacting with the external environment, then the latter in this case will be represented by system B (element of system A). Therefore, the peculiarity of the unity of the system with the external environment can be interpreted as the interaction of elements of the system of a higher order. Similar reasoning can be carried out for any element of any system.

The study of the properties of a system involves, first of all, the study of the relationship between the parts and the whole. This means that:

1) the whole is primary, and the parts are secondary;

2) system-forming factors represent the conditions for the interconnectedness of parts within one system;

3) the parts of the system form an inextricable whole, so an impact on any of them affects the entire system;

4) each part of the system has its own purpose in terms of the goal towards which the activity of the whole is aimed;

5) the nature of the parts and their functions are determined by the position of the parts as a whole, and their behavior is regulated by the relationships between the whole and its parts;

6) the whole behaves as something unified, regardless of the degree of complexity.

Of the variety of properties of systems for studying organizational processes, it is advisable to first highlight such properties as emergence, equifinality and homeostasis.

Emergence- one of the most essential properties of systems. This is the irreducibility of the properties of a system to the properties of its elements; in other words, emergence is the presence of new qualities of a whole that are absent in its components. Thus, the properties of the whole are not a simple sum of the properties of its constituent elements, although they depend on them. At the same time, elements combined into a system can lose properties inherent to them outside the system or acquire new ones.

Equifinality- one of the least studied properties of a system, characterizing the maximum capabilities of systems of a certain class of complexity. L. von Bertalanffy, who proposed this term, defined equifinality applied to open system as the ability of a system (in contrast to equilibrium states in closed systems, completely determined by initial conditions) to achieve a state independent of time and initial conditions, which is determined exclusively by the parameters of the system. The need to introduce this concept arises starting from a certain level of system complexity. Equifinality- the internal predisposition of the system to achieve a certain limiting state, independent of external conditions. Idea equifinality consists in studying the parameters that determine a certain maximum level of organization.

Systemic properties of social matter, social organizations are studied within the framework of a systems approach, which performs the theoretical and methodological function of cognition and transformation of complex social systems. The word “system” is of Greek origin (systema), meaning a compound made up of parts. Systems are divided into natural and artificial. The first are natural, the second are social, created by man.

Everything that is not part of the system and affects it, or that is affected by the system itself, is called its external environment.

Depending on the degree of interaction with the external environment, open and closed systems. Based on the degree of complexity, systems are divided into large and complex. Complex systems include those that are built to solve multi-purpose problems.

Systems consist of subsystems, each of which can be considered both separately and in their inextricable integrity. It is quite obvious that in social systems, maintaining their integrity and qualitative certainty is carried out at the level of not only self-regulation, but also targeted influence. Therefore, each social system consists of two independent but interconnected subsystems: managed and managing. The managed subsystem includes all elements that ensure the direct process of creating material and spiritual goods or providing services. The control subsystem includes all elements that ensure the process of targeted influence. The most important element of the control system is organizational structure management.

Each of the named subsystems has its own characteristics. At the same time, speaking about the system and the totality of its elements, one should pay attention to the fact that in the social system itself and in its large parts (managed and management subsystems) homogeneous groups of elements are clearly visible, forming unique systems of a lower level: technical, technological, organizational , economic and social.

A technical system is a proportional combination of individual technical means from many separate types of different equipment. For example, in socio-economic systems it expresses the production capacity of an enterprise, organization, industry, with the help of which people in the process of material production are able to produce products of a given quality in a certain quantity.

The technological system is based on the division of activity, material and spiritual production into stages and processes. The elements of a technological system are objects of labor, individual operations and procedures. This system is a set of rules and norms that determine the sequence of operations in the process of material or spiritual production and their management.

The organizational system, through the development and management structure, relevant regulations and instructions, allows for the rational use of technical means, objects of labor, information, space and labor resources.

The economic system is a unity of economic and financial processes and connections.

A social system is a set of social relations formed as a result of the joint activities of people and social groups.

All systems - technical, technological, organizational, economic and social - are interconnected. In their unity they constitute an integral organism. At the same time, the technical, technological and organizational systems together provide and characterize the organizational and technical side of management, and the economic and social systems - the socio-economic side.

The connection between the control and managed systems is carried out using information, which serves as the basis for the development of management influences and decisions coming from the control system to the managed system for execution.

Every social system is self-governing. At the same time, during the management process it experiences external influences. External and internal influences in any system are closely interconnected and mutually determined: the more significant one is, the lesser the role of the other.

The activity and development of the system as a whole are subordinated to a global goal, and its elements and subsystems have local tasks, the solution of which their existence is subordinated to. The functioning of such systems and their management are not only the process of maintaining their integrity and certainty, but also the process of transferring them to a new qualitative state.

The characteristic features of scientific social management are: knowledge and conscious use of social laws, patterns of management, ensuring consistency and continuity of the process of management influences, modeling of managed objects and subjects of management, taking into account quantitative and qualitative measurements of both objects and subjects of management.

Thus, the theory of social management establishes laws and patterns, principles for the development of social processes and phenomena, as well as the construction of management systems themselves. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the principle of self-organization of social systems. For processes of self-organization in space and time, the following conditions are necessary: 1) relative openness of the system, which presupposes the presence of certain flows into and out of it (resources and energy, capital, goods, human resources in their connection with other societies, etc.) ; 2) nonlinearity of the law of interaction between various parts of the social system; 3) the presence of an element of randomness (for example, randomness natural origin, accidents in scientific and technical inventions and the consequences of their use, etc.); 4) certainty of the range of system parameters that play an important role in the qualitative behavior of the social system, the so-called control parameters. Moreover, if the control parameters have critical points, beyond which the behavior of the system radically changes and new types of solutions arise, then such control parameters are called bifurcation. The control (bifurcation) parameters of the macroeconomic level can be efficiency coefficients of production interaction, any integrated characteristics (for example, gross national product), etc. At the micro level, these can be various characteristics of social interaction.

The idea of self-organization in no way contradicts the idea of management, since the quality, path and result of self-organizing behavior will be different each time if at least one of the conditions listed above changes. In this case, the managing subject can be the leading part of society (the organizational and managerial top), exercising the main control influence through legal norms (laws) and regulation of various “flows” of social information. One thing is certain, that the relationship between two elements of a complex social system - its object and subject - is the main issue of managing, creating and improving its system.

There are the following approaches to the study of social management problems:

-- concrete historical, which involves the study of social management relations as processes that are in a state of development and change under the influence of factors acting on them;
-- complex, which assumes, when studying management relations, the interrelation of economic, legal, socio-psychological and other approaches to the analysis of management relations;
-- aspectual, which allows one to study one of the sides of management relations, one of the properties manifested through connections with that type of relationship that is specifically studied by any social science (philosophy, political economy, sociology, psychology, etc.);
-- systemic, which allows us to consider both the managed and control subsystems as an integral complex of interconnected elements united by a common goal, to identify the properties of the system, its internal and external connections.

The state of management relations and the integrity of a complex social system, first of all, depend on the balance of its two subsystems: the object and the subject of social management.

The management crisis is, first of all, explained by the ever-increasing contradiction between the object and the subject of management.

The object of management is social relations, social processes, social organizations, social resources and the person himself, who inevitably enters into social relations, participating in public processes and social organizations, in the implementation of resources. The subject of management needs to realize and adequately express in scientific form everything that happens in the control object, to change which its efforts are directed.

It should be emphasized that the center of such influence is not people, as is commonly believed, but relationships that are in constant change, where various events and phenomena occur in time and space. They are characterized by a certain sequence, have causes of occurrence, and stages of development. Connections between events and phenomena can be stable and unstable, natural and random. It should be emphasized that in cases where the connection between them expresses a certain tendency to maintain or change in the position of people in society, in their way of life, the trends are characterized by a significant extent in time, a sequence of stages, statistical stability, in these conditions it can be characterized as social process. It is the processes that are the main object of social management, the impact on which, in accordance with their internal logic of development, leads to changes in the behavior of people who are included in social relations.

The classification of social processes has different bases.

1. By forms of social life (economic, social, political, spiritual and cultural, personal).
2. In terms of social content, although some of them may be directly caused by technical, biological, climatic anomalies, for example, man-made explosions, environmental changes, epidemics various diseases, earthquakes, etc.
3. By nature: massive, systemic or episodic (for example, an innovation or experiment either becomes widespread or has an episodic nature).
4. By the level of people’s participation in solving public issues: by activity social processes can be classified as low, medium, high.
5. Depending on the focus on strengthening and progressive development of social relations (constructive) or on loosening and collapse (destructive, antisocial).
6. Depending on the social situation, they differ in their nature, content and duration.
7. According to the level of organization, societies are divided into: internal and external (intrapersonal, intragroup and intergroup, intersocietal, covering the whole society).

The second component of a management object is resources. The concept of resources has two meanings: (1) reserves, funds used when necessary; (2) the limiting value of some means (for example, the daily reserve of time is 24 hours).

The concept of resources is close in meaning to the concept of reserves. Sometimes they are used as synonyms. Reserves (lat. reservere - save, preserve): (1) a source from which new strength and means are drawn; (2) a supply of something in case of need; (3) possible means not yet used. Closely related to these concepts is the concept of potential (Latin potentia - strength) - the totality of all means, reserves, sources that can be used, if necessary, for any purpose.

Social resources can be defined as reserves of creative energy of the individual (social, cognitive, activity), social organization and society as a whole - a community of people, organizations, institutions, social groups. These reserves of human energy are enormous; some scientists compare them to energy atomic nucleus. One of the most pressing problems today is the problem of “unpacking” this enormous potential, revealing the creative potential of a person, social organizations and channeling these sources of progress into a creative direction.

Management faces the problem of finding mechanisms for more complete use of social resources. For this purpose, they must be divided into (1) motivational, (2) intellectual, (3) informational, (4) communicative, (5) socio-psychological, (6) competitive, (7) demographic, (8) socio-ecological , (9) activity-based, (10) innovative, (11) strategic, (12) personnel, (13) organizational, (14) managerial, (15) scientific.

Social resources form the core of the entire system of resources, without unpacking them it is impossible to obtain effective results from the sale of any types of resources - material, economic, natural, etc.

Social resources have a number of features that fundamentally distinguish them, for example, from natural ones. Firstly, natural resources are exhaustible, but social ones are practically non-existent. Thus, managerial, organizational, and scientific resources can exist for any length of time, regardless of whether we use them or not. Secondly, these are not only partially, but also entirely renewable resources. In the process of their use, they tend not to be destroyed, but to increase. Thirdly, if natural resources can be stored for a long time, then social ones begin to degrade and depreciate as a result of their lack of demand. Fourthly, with regard to social resources, the criteria for “sufficiency versus insufficiency” are more complex and have not yet been fully developed. Fifthly, they have not only great diversity, but also interchangeability.

It is necessary to recognize that all objects of management influences, to one degree or another, are also their subjects. This, for example, applies to social organizations that are created and designed in the process of managerial work, but, having arisen, have a huge reverse impact on the development of social processes and the implementation of numerous resources of society.

And the study of man as a subject of management is of particular importance, although to a certain extent he is also an object of managerial influence, because the object of management is people and social organizations.

It is very important to emphasize that personality is not only a product public relations, she not only masters the norms and values of the social environment in the process of socialization, but, firstly, realizes herself each time in a specific form depending on her creative potential, and secondly, experiencing social influence and revealing her vitality By forming the will, beliefs, and one’s inner world in attitudes and behavior, the personality has a reverse influence on the social space, transforming it in accordance with the developed values.

A one-sided consideration of a person’s conditioning by objective circumstances to this day often looks like a person being “programmed” by existence, leaving almost no room for free self-development and self-realization of personal potential.

Usually, when using the concept of personality, they do not consider such characteristics as temperament, individuality, character, emotional traits, natural inclinations and innate properties, on the basis of which the individual’s abilities, his value orientations are formed, which are the mechanism of self-defense of the individual from the destructive effects of social space, influence which is constantly increasing.

Today the problem is to learn to measure the difference in the creative potentials of individuals, to promptly identify the multidirectionality of creative talent of people from childhood and to create conditions (social and personal) for their most complete implementation for the benefit of society, including in the field of management. This is the key to successfully solving global problems arising on the eve of the 21st century.

The enormous potential of creatively gifted people, especially talented ones, can and should be put at the service of society, its management by social forces. This requires a different philosophy and culture of the human community: giftedness and talent are not replaceable anywhere - neither in science, nor in art, nor in management activities. They are a national treasure. Therefore, supporting gifted, creatively rich people is a matter for the whole society, its policies, projects and support programs. Principle of existence modern society who wants to survive and secure sources of development for themselves - providing all individuals with socially equal conditions at the start for self-realization, the opportunity for rich life choices, including professional and managerial ones, promoting self-realization in various roles and functions. Under such conditions, the most worthy will undoubtedly take their destined place in life, the most talented and gifted will become recognized leaders, including in management. Therefore, colleges, lyceums, special management and scientific schools for gifted people are needed. But access to them should be socially universal. The selection criterion is the degree of talent and professional suitability of a person for future work. There is no other option, otherwise there will be stagnation of development and an increase in destructive trends. Therefore, at the center of social management are the personality of the manager, his professional and leadership qualities, which today are studied by special branches of scientific knowledge within the framework of the general theory of management.

It should be noted as a general pattern the continuous complication of the control object, associated with the fact that social processes are becoming more and more dynamic, complex, nonlinear and therefore less and less amenable to adequate recognition, which places increasingly higher demands on control relations within the control system. The latter have a complex internal structure:

* control relationships within the control system: between steps, levels of control (vertical connections); between the control links of each stage (horizontal connections); between functional control units of the same name at different stages of the control subsystem;
* relations between managers and subordinates: at each level of management (relationships of subordination), at different levels of management (relations of coordination).

In addition, social management relations are divided into:

-- sectoral, regional, intersectoral, interregional, territorial-sectoral;
-- external (relations with environment) and internal (relations of interaction of system elements);
-- intersystem, interpersonal and mixed, as well as collective and individual;
- temporary and permanent, direct and indirect;
-- linear, functional and mixed.

The management system in which management functions are implemented includes: specialists united in management bodies; organizational and computer technology, connections between management bodies, a set of management methods used, connections between an object and the external environment, flows of management information, material and financial resources to achieve permanent goals, etc. It also includes social organizations whose bodies are in the process of management and organizational activities make management decisions, organize control over their implementation and constantly improve this process by providing feedback.

Managerial and organizational relations are implemented in management activities, an organic part of which is organizational. They cannot be separated one from the other because this is a single process: management certainly involves organizational efforts, organization does not make sense without management. All the numerous elements of the management system, interconnected, can represent a holistic entity only as a result of the organization of management. Therefore, maintaining the organized integrity of the management system, its stability is one of the most important tasks of management, especially its component - the organization, which is called upon to develop specific measures to achieve set goals, divide tasks into separate operations, find resources, distribute functions, coordinate interactions various departments.

It is a fair statement that management work cannot be reduced to organization, but it is also undeniable that after solving substantive management issues: defining goals, carrying out information and analytical activities, making management decisions, where there is also an organizational aspect, the importance of the latter increases many times. This is associated with the implementation of all management functions in a complex in practice, with obtaining an integral final management result, with the organization of the implementation of decisions made. It can only be conditionally assumed that after defining the goals and objectives of management, clarifying its functions and finding methods for their implementation, management largely comes down to organizational activities.

At this stage, a certain type of work is especially intensified, more related to the ordering of all connections between the object and the subject of management. If at the stage of goal setting, assessment of a problem situation, decision-making, the organizational structure is just taking shape, then at the stage of decisions made it should act like a well-functioning organism capable of ensuring the interaction of all links of the management system, coordinating the interaction of different structural units, finding resources, and motivating individuals to act. etc. It is quite obvious that without this, effective management results are impossible.

Managerial work, first of all, is associated with the knowledge of trends, patterns of development of social life and with an assessment on this basis of the current socio-economic, political, spiritual and cultural situation. The latter constitutes the discrepancy between the goal and the actual state of affairs and determines the problem for the sake of which the decision is made. In the process of cognition and analysis, the control subject performs a number of operations and actions. Their sequence is due to the fact that any management cycle includes a number of stages, stages that sequentially follow one after another.

Consistently changing stages of the management cycle correspond to operations that are characterized as management functions. These include the management decision-making function, the information function, the organizational function, the regulatory function, the corrective function, and the control function. The implementation of these functions is the work of management.

So, by management system we understand, first of all, the unity of the subject and the object of management, which is achieved as a result of not only self-regulation in complex social systems, but also the targeted influence of the object of management on the subject. The quality of this impact, first of all, depends on: managerial and organizational relations, on the content of managerial and organizational activities in which they are implemented; on the appropriateness of the actions of the subject of management, its main components (government bodies, social organizations in general, individual people - managers), who carry out management and organizational work, make management decisions and achieve one or another management result.