Iranian-Byzantine wars - armed struggle between Byzantium and Iran in the 5th-7th centuries. for dominance in Western Asia. Byzantium inherited the traditional military confrontation with the Persians from the Roman Empire. At the same time, the rulers of Byzantium precisely Sasanian Iran was considered as the only, besides the empire itself, a full-fledged state worthy of respect; There were official “brotherly relations” between the emperors and the shahs. It happened more than once that the rulers of one of the states became guardians (“adopted”) the heirs of another in order to guarantee his legal rights to the throne in the future. At the same time, deep contradictions in the geopolitical interests and religious ideologies of the powers constantly created the ground for conflicts between them.

In 420 in Iran, where the state religion was Zoroastrianism, persecution of Christians began, and many refugees rushed to the borders of Byzantium. In anticipation of an enemy invasion, fortifications were built in the eastern provinces of the empire. At the same time, the Byzantines launched a preemptive strike in Mesopotamia. Having pushed back the enemy vanguard, the imperial troops besieged the fortress of Nisibis, but with the approach of a strong Persian army led by Shah Bahram V, they were forced to retreat beyond the Euphrates. A major battle took place here, in which the Persians were defeated. After this, in 422, the war ended with the signing of a peace treaty, according to which both powers guaranteed their subjects freedom of religion, which did not impose any obligations on Byzantium, since there were practically no Zoroastrians on its territory. In turn, the Byzantine emperor undertook not to provide patronage to the Arab tribes living on the territory of Iran, and had to pay a fee for the protection by the Persians of the so-called Caspian Gate (Derbent Passage), through which nomadic tribes usually invaded, ravaging both Iranian and Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor. A new aggravation in interstate relations occurred when the Asia Minor Isaurian tribes began to raid Iran.

In 440, Shahinshah Yazdegerd II set out on a campaign against the Byzantine possessions, and the army of the empire was advanced to the Euphrates to protect the border. However, after minor clashes, the conflict was resolved through diplomatic means. The parties entered into a truce for a year. The most important condition This agreement resulted in a ban on building fortresses in the border area. By the beginning of the 6th century. The Byzantines, taking advantage of some weakening of Iran, stopped payments provided for in the agreement of 422. Shahinshah Kavad I demanded to pay the debt over several years at once, but Emperor Anastasius refused. This was the reason for the war of 502-506. The Persians invaded Armenia, and while they were besieging the border fortress of Amida, the Byzantines hastily assembled an army to repel the attack.

In January 503, Amida fell before the imperial troops could arrive at the scene of hostilities. Subsequently, the struggle continued with varying success: the Persians defeated the enemy in a field battle, but were unable to capture Edessa, and the Byzantines devastated the Persian part of Armenia. Then Kavad's position was complicated by the invasion of the Huns from the north. Unable to wage a war on two fronts, the Shah was forced to negotiate with Byzantium, and in 506 the parties signed a peace treaty that confirmed the previous borders. In violation of the agreements reached, Emperor Anastasius erected the Daru fortress in the border zone. This circumstance was used by the Persians as a pretext to start a new war, the main reason for which was the strengthening of Byzantine influence in Lazika - the traditional sphere of Iranian interests in the Caucasus. In 528, the combined forces of the Laz and Byzantines repelled the Iranian invasion. Two years later, the army of Master Belisarius defeated a Persian army twice its size at the walls of the Dara fortress in Mesopotamia. The son of Kavad, Khosrow I Anushirvan, who ascended the throne, signed an indefinite truce with Byzantium in 532. The powers confirmed the preservation of the old borders, but the empire was obliged to pay overdue debts for the protection of the Caspian gates. “Eternal Peace” turned out to be short-lived. Around 540, Emperor Justinian tried to win over the Arabs allied with Iran, while large forces of the Byzantine army fought fighting in Italy and North Africa. Khosrow took advantage of this circumstance to start a new war. The Persians successfully operated in Syria, captured and completely destroyed Antioch, but got stuck in Lazika. Both sides brutally devastated the adjacent border areas. The stages of the war were briefly interrupted by truces concluded in 545, 551 and 555, during which the parties gathered strength to continue hostilities. Only in 561 was peace signed for a period of 50 years. The Byzantine Empire pledged to pay Iran an annual tribute, and the Persians withdrew their troops from Lazika, but secured Svaneti.

In 570, the Persians captured Yemen, expelling the Christian Ethiopians allied with the empire. For its part, Byzantium organized raids by the Turks and Khazars on Iran, and also provided assistance to Armenia, which rebelled against the power of the Shah. All this led to a new aggravation of relations; In addition, Emperor Justin II once again refused to make agreed upon cash payments. As a result, a new war broke out between the two powers in 572-591. After the first successes of the Byzantines, Khosrow's army invaded the empire and destroyed Syrian cities. The Shahinshah himself besieged and took the Daru fortress in 573. The Byzantines managed to conclude a truce, but in 576 hostilities resumed.

In 578, Justin II died, a year later Khosrow I also died, but the fighting continued with varying success. In 590, Khosrow's son Hormizd IV was dethroned and killed. His son and successor Khosrow II Parviz also soon lost power as a result of the rebellion of the commander Bahram Chobin. Khosrow fled to Byzantium and begged the emperor for help. Emperor Mauritius adopted the young Shah, and Khosrow, with the help of the Byzantine army, regained the throne of his ancestors. After this, in 591, a peace extremely beneficial for the empire was signed between the two powers: Iran abandoned Byzantine tribute, and the empire significantly expanded its borders in the East - almost all of Perso-Armenia went to Byzantium. Having established himself on the throne, Khosrow II maintained peaceful relations with Byzantium, but with the help of secret diplomacy he incited anti-imperial sentiments among the Armenian nobility.

When in 602 his benefactor Emperor Mauritius was overthrown and executed and power in Constantinople was seized by the usurper Phocas, the Shahinshah, under the pretext of revenge for his adoptive father, began the last Iranian-Byzantine war. At its first stage, the Persians achieved impressive results. Having captured the border fortresses, by 610 they occupied Mesopotamia, and three years later they conquered Syria. The Persians took Jerusalem in 614, invaded Egypt in 617, and by 622 controlled most of Asia Minor. More than once their cavalry made rapid raids all the way to the Sea of Marmara.

In 610, another coup took place in Constantinople, Phocas was overthrown and killed. But also the new emperor Heraclius for a long time didn't have real forces to counter the enemy.

Only in the winter of 622, having formed and personally trained the newly recruited army, he transferred it with the help of the fleet to Cilicia and gained a foothold there. A year later, Heraclius brought a second army by sea to Trebizond. Gathering the available forces into a single fist, he ousted the Persians from Asia Minor and invaded deep into Iran, drawing part of the enemy forces from the Middle East. Even the siege of Constantinople by the Persians and Avars in 626 did not force Heraclius to stop the offensive war. The Byzantines successfully operated in Transcaucasia, and then entered Mesopotamia.

Venetian Republic
Papal States
Italian kingdom
Principality of Capua
Principality of Benevento
Principality of Salerno
Duchy of Spoleto
Duchy of Naples
Duchy of Amalfi Arab Caliphate Commanders

Irakli I,
Constantine III,
Constant II,
Constantine IV,
Justinian II,
Leo III the Isaurian

Khalid ibn Walid,
Muawiyah

Strengths of the parties

unknown

Losses

unknown

Arab-Byzantine wars- a series of military conflicts between the Arab Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire during the 7th-12th centuries. The beginning of the wars marked the invasion of Byzantium by the Arabs in the 630s and the beginning of territorial conquests on their part. As a result of these wars, Byzantium lost large quantity its territories in the east and south: Palestine, Syria, Armenia, Egypt, North Africa, Cyprus, Crete, Sicily, parts of Asia Minor.

The initial part of the conflict continued in and ended with the second Arab siege of Constantinople, after which the Arabs were defeated and the threat of their capture of Asia Minor was averted.

After the Seljuk conquests, the situation completely changed. Byzantium was driven out of Asia Minor, and the Abbasid Caliphate was significantly weakened. There were no more important conflicts between the Arabs and Byzantium.

Prerequisites

Stabilization of borders, 718-863

Byzantine counter-offensive

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Arab-Byzantine wars - ,



Invasion of Byzantine Syria

Invasion of Byzantine Egypt

Invasion of Byzantine North Africa

Invasion of Byzantine Sicily

Arab conquest of Persia -



Invasion of Persian Afghanistan

Invasion of Persian India

Arab conquest of the Caucasus -



Arab-Khazar wars -



Arab conquest of the Iberian Peninsula

An excerpt characterizing the Arab-Byzantine wars

“December 3rd.
“I woke up late, read the Holy Scripture, but was insensitive. Then he went out and walked around the hall. I wanted to think, but instead my imagination imagined an incident that happened four years ago. Mister Dolokhov, after my duel, meeting me in Moscow, told me that he hopes that I now enjoy complete peace of mind, despite the absence of my wife. I didn’t answer anything then. Now I remembered all the details of this meeting and in my soul I spoke to him the most vicious words and caustic answers. I came to my senses and gave up this thought only when I saw myself in the heat of anger; but he didn’t repent enough of it. Then Boris Drubetskoy came and began to tell various adventures; From the very moment he arrived, I became dissatisfied with his visit and told him something disgusting. He objected. I flared up and told him a lot of unpleasant and even rude things. He fell silent and I only realized it when it was already too late. My God, I don’t know how to deal with him at all. The reason for this is my pride. I put myself above him and therefore become much worse than him, for he is condescending to my rudeness, and on the contrary, I have contempt for him. My God, grant me, in his presence, to see more of my abomination and act in such a way that it would be useful to him too. After lunch I fell asleep and while falling asleep, I clearly heard a voice saying in my left ear: “Your day.”
“I saw in a dream that I was walking in the dark, and suddenly surrounded by dogs, but I walked without fear; suddenly one small one grabbed me by the left thigh with its teeth and did not let go. I began to crush it with my hands. And as soon as I tore it off, another, even larger one, began to gnaw at me. I began to lift it and the more I lifted it, the larger and heavier it became. And suddenly brother A. comes and, taking me by the arm, took me with him and led me to a building, to enter which I had to walk along a narrow board. I stepped on it and the board bent and fell, and I began to climb onto the fence, which I could barely reach with my hands. After much effort, I dragged my body so that my legs hung on one side and my torso on the other side. I looked around and saw that Brother A. was standing on the fence and pointing out to me a large alley and a garden, and in the garden there was a large and beautiful building. I woke up. Lord, Great Architect of Nature! help me tear away from myself the dogs - my passions and the last of them, which combines in itself the forces of all the previous ones, and help me enter that temple of virtue, which I achieved in a dream.”
“December 7th.
“I had a dream that Joseph Alekseevich was sitting in my house, I was very happy, and I wanted to treat him. It’s as if I’m chatting incessantly with strangers and suddenly I remember that he can’t like this, and I want to approach him and hug him. But as soon as I approached, I see that his face has changed, it has become youthful, and he is quietly telling me something from the teachings of the Order, so quietly that I cannot hear. Then it was as if we all left the room, and something strange happened. We sat or lay on the floor. He told me something. And I seemed to want to show him my sensitivity and, without listening to his speech, I began to imagine the state of my inner man and the mercy of God that overshadowed me. And tears appeared in my eyes, and I was glad that he noticed it. But he looked at me with annoyance and jumped up, stopping his conversation. I became afraid and asked if what was said applied to me; but he didn’t answer anything, showed me a gentle look, and then we suddenly found ourselves in my bedroom, where there is a double bed. He lay down on the edge of it, and I seemed to be burning with a desire to caress him and lie down right there. And he seemed to ask me: “Tell me the truth, what is your main passion?” Did you recognize him? I think you already recognize him." Confused by this question, I answered that laziness was my main passion. He shook his head in disbelief. And I, even more embarrassed, answered that, although I live with my wife, on his advice, but not as my wife’s husband. To this he objected that he should not deprive his wife of his affection, and made me feel that this was my duty. But I answered that I was ashamed of this, and suddenly everything disappeared. And I woke up, and found in my thoughts the text of the Holy Scripture: There is light in man, and the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness does not embrace it. Joseph Alekseevich’s face was youthful and bright. On this day I received a letter from a benefactor in which he writes about the duties of marriage.”
“December 9th.
“I had a dream from which I woke up with my heart fluttering. I saw that I was in Moscow, in my house, in a large sofa room, and Joseph Alekseevich was coming out of the living room. It was as if I immediately found out that the process of rebirth had already taken place with him, and I rushed to meet him. I seem to kiss him and his hands, and he says: “Did you notice that my face is different?” I looked at him, continuing to hold him in my arms, and it was as if I saw that his face was young, but there was only a hair on his head. no, and the features are completely different. And it’s as if I were saying to him: “I would recognize you if I happened to meet you,” and meanwhile I think: “Did I tell the truth?” And suddenly I see that he is lying like a dead corpse; then he gradually came to his senses and entered with me into a large office, holding a large book, written on Alexandrian sheets. And it’s as if I’m saying: “I wrote this.” And he answered me by bowing his head. I opened the book, and in this book there was beautiful drawing on all the pages. And I seem to know that these paintings represent the love affairs of the soul with its lover. And on the pages I seem to see a beautiful image of a girl in transparent clothes and with a transparent body, flying towards the clouds. And as if I knew that this girl is nothing more than an image of the Song of Songs. And it’s as if, looking at these drawings, I feel that what I’m doing is bad, and I can’t tear myself away from them. God help me! My God, if this abandonment of me by You is Your action, then Thy will be done; but if I myself caused this, then teach me what to do. I will perish from my depravity if You forsake me completely.”

The Rostovs' financial affairs did not improve during the two years they spent in the village.

BYZANTINE-GOTHIC WARS (VI century)

Wars of the Byzantine Empire with the kingdoms of the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Spain.

The goal of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian was to regain control of the territories of the former Western Roman Empire and establish Byzantine hegemony in the basin Mediterranean Sea. As part of this program of conquest, the Vandal state in North Africa, in territory that once belonged to Carthage, was relatively easily conquered.

Although the Vandal War continued intermittently from 533 to 548, no major battles took place. The Byzantine commander Belisarius easily conquered the Vandals and returned to Constantinople with most of the army. But then the remaining Byzantine garrisons had to deal with a rebellion by the local Berber population. Belisarius' successor Solomon was killed, and only in 548 did the Byzantine commander John Troglitus manage to suppress the rebel resistance.

North Africa became a springboard for the landing of the Byzantines in Italy. But the Gothic kingdoms turned out to be a much tougher nut to crack. There was a particularly fierce struggle with the Ostrogoths. The pretext for the war was the murder of the Gothic queen Amalasunta by her relative and co-ruler Theodagat. Justinian acted as a champion of the legal rights of her heirs (Amalasunta had previously negotiated the possible recognition of the emperor's power). The army of the Master of the East Belisarius, consisting of 4 thousand regular soldiers and federated militias, 3 thousand Isaurians, 200 Huns, 300 Moors and the commander’s personal squad, occupied Sicily in 535. Byzantine troops then landed on the Apennine Peninsula and quickly captured Naples, Rome and the Gothic capital of Ravenna.

The Gothic army, according to Byzantine sources, numbered up to 150 thousand people. Most of the Gothic army consisted of heavily armed horsemen armed with spears and swords. Their horses were also covered with armor. But the Byzantine heavy cavalry defeated the Goths with the support of light mounted archers. In the Gothic army there were only foot archers, and there were too few of them. The arrows of the mounted riflemen could not hit the heavily armed horsemen, but wounded their horses, forcing the Goths to dismount.

The Italian population greeted the Byzantines as liberators from the Gothic yoke. Some of the Gothic garrisons also went into the service of the emperor. The new king Vitiges, who replaced Theodagatus, was defeated in the battle of Ravenna, surrendered and ended his days in Constantinople at the court of the emperor, where he received the rank of patrician.

Byzantine tax oppression turned a large part of the population of Italy, both Gothic and Romanesque, against the emperor. The new king of the Goths, Totila, managed to collect new army and expel the 12,000-strong Byzantine army from almost all the cities of the Apennine Peninsula. Rome changed hands several times and turned into a pile of ruins.

After a series of failures, Belisarius was recalled from Italy. He was replaced by the Armenian Narses, who defeated Totila at the Battle of Tegina in Umbria in 552. In this battle, an army of 15 thousand Goths was opposed by a Byzantine army of 20-30 thousand people. The Gothic cavalry attack was repelled by Byzantine foot archers, while Byzantine mounted archers neutralized the enemy foot archers. After this defeat, Totila was killed during the pursuit. In this battle, where mainly cavalry fought, up to 6 thousand Goths fell. The retreating Gothic cavalry crushed its own infantry. After this victory, Narses finally occupied Rome. The remnants of the Gothic army, having fled the battlefield at Tegini, chose Totila's nephew Teia as king. He died at the Battle of Vesuvius at the end of 552. The head of the Gothic fleet went over to the side of the Byzantines, and Narses managed to blockade the Teia camp, which, in turn, sought to release the garrison of the city of Kuma, where the Gothic treasury was located. Lack of provisions forced Theia to accept an unequal battle.

After the defeat, most of the surviving Goths, by agreement with Narses, left Italy forever. The struggle with the remaining Gothic troops and the Alamanni and Frankish tribes invading Italy, as well as with the former Byzantine allies the Heruli, continued until 554. In 556, Narses drove the Franks out of northern Italy. The country was devastated by a 20-year war and extortions by both armies. Rome remained desolate until the Renaissance.

In 554, Byzantine troops, having finished off the Ostrogoths, landed in Spain and defeated the army of the Visigothic kingdom. However, the Byzantines were unable to crush it and limited themselves to conquering only the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, with the cities of New Carthage (Cartagena), Malaga and Cordoba. The bulk of the newly conquered territories of Byzantium were held for 50-70 years.

The Byzantine army consisted mainly of mercenary troops of barbarians, who often rebelled against the empire and easily defected to its opponents if the treasury in Constantinople was empty. Also, many Gothic leaders either supported their own kings or went over to the side of the emperor. So, for example, the Goth Aligern bravely defended Cumae in 552, and Theia and his army came to his aid. And two years later, the same Aligern, together with Narses, defeated the Frankish army of Bucelin at Kasilin.

Justinian's wars seriously upset the finances of the empire. Therefore, it was only a matter of time before the newly acquired territories, which could only be held by armed force, fell away. The fertile lands of Italy, Spain and North Africa were claimed by too many warlike neighbors - the Franks, Lombards, Alamanni, Arabs, etc.

BYZANTINE-PERSIAN WARS (VI-VII centuries)

Wars between the Byzantine Empire and Persia for hegemony in the Near and Middle East.

Taking advantage of the diversion of the main forces of Byzantium under Justinian the Great to Italy, the Persian king Khosrow invaded Syria, occupied and plundered its capital Antioch and reached the Mediterranean Sea. In Lazika, Persian troops fought with the Laz, vassals of Byzantium, trying to break through to the Black Sea. Belisarius, who arrived from Italy, managed to recapture Antioch, after which the struggle continued with varying success, interrupted by short-term truces. In 562, peace was finally concluded for 50 years. Under its terms, the emperor undertook to pay tribute to the Persian king, and he promised not to interfere with his Christian subjects to celebrate their religious rites. The Persians also left Lazika.

A new war broke out in 603, shortly after the accession of Emperor Phocas, who killed his predecessor Mauritius. King Khosrow II sheltered an impostor who pretended to be the son of Emperor Theodosius of Mauritius. The imaginary Theodosius invaded Mesopotamia, but was defeated by the army of the Byzantine commander, the Goth Herman, in the area of Bet-Vashi. Then Khosrow came to the aid of the impostor with the Persian army.

In the two-day battle of Tella with the army of Herman, the Persians initially failed, and Khosrow was almost captured. But on the second day the numerically superior forces of the Persians prevailed. Herman was wounded and died from his wounds ten days later. Khosrow's army moved deep into Mesopotamia and besieged the Daru fortress. The siege dragged on for a year and a half. Finally, the Persians, using a tunnel, brought down the wall and burst into the city, slaughtering almost all the inhabitants.

After the capture of Dara, Khosrow sent troops to Armenia. With the help of pseudo-Theodosius, the Persians managed to capture many Armenian fortresses and besiege the main stronghold of Byzantine rule in Armenia, Theodosiopolis, which fell in 607. The army of the Persian commander Shahin passed through Cappadocia and, with the help of the Jews, occupied the city of Caesarea on the border of Palestine. In 610, Shahin reached Chalcedon on the west bank of the Bosphorus, threatening Constantinople.

Meanwhile, in Syria, the Persians again captured Edessa, Antioch, and later Damascus. Here the actions of the Persian army were facilitated by civil strife between Jews and Christians, as well as between representatives various trends Christianity. In 610, the Persians stood on the Euphrates.

At the end of the same year, Phocas was overthrown as a result of an uprising raised against him in the African provinces, and the Exarch of Africa, Heraclius, a talented commander, became emperor. In the early years, busy with internal strife, he did not yet have the opportunity to move significant forces against the Persians. Only in 613 did Heraclius begin active hostilities on the eastern border of the empire. Together with his brother Theodore, he invaded Syria, and sent an army under the command of the commander Philippicus to Armenia. However, a turning point in the fighting has not yet occurred. Heraclius was defeated by the Persian commander Rahzad.

In April 614, after a 20-day siege, Khosrow's army stormed Jerusalem. According to some reports, 66.5 thousand Orthodox Christians were killed here, and the Jewish population sided with the Persians. The majority of Christians in Syria were Monophysites and preferred the rule of the Persian Zoroastrians to the oppression of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

By 618, a single Persian army had conquered Egypt. Shahin's army, having passed through Asia Minor, reached the Bosphorus in 614, camping opposite the Byzantine capital. The Persians were pacified by entering into negotiations with them. As a result, Shahin's army left the Bosphorus, for which Khosrow, who was planning to continue the war, was very angry with his commander.

In 617, hordes of Avars and Slavs led by the Avar Khagan approached Constantinople from the Balkan Peninsula. With great difficulty, the emperor managed to pay them off. In 620, peace was concluded with the kagan.

The following year, having gotten rid of the Avar threat, Heraclius and his army crossed to Asia Minor. He managed to attract the Khazar Khaganate and a number of peoples of the Caucasus to an alliance against Persia. In 626, the Avar Khagan violated the agreement with the emperor and, with the support of the Slavs, besieged Constantinople. But the Avar-Slavic army was defeated by the Byzantine garrison. This defeat not only led to the decline of the Avar Khaganate, but also forced the Persian troops to retreat from Chalcedon to the coast of the Sea of Marmara to Syria, where the Persians suffered a series of defeats from the better trained Byzantine army. The largest battle took place on December 12, 627 near the ruins of Nineveh. The Persian leader Rahzad and many commanders of his troops fell in the battle. According to Byzantine sources, Heraclius's army lost 40 people killed and 10 died from wounds. According to the Arab historian Tabari, 6 thousand Persians fell.

Heraclius invaded central regions Persia. In 628, the unfortunate king Khosrow, who fled from the Byzantines without a fight, was dethroned and executed, and his successor and son Shiroe-Kavad the following year made peace with Byzantium, returning to it all the previous Persian conquests in Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Was returned and taken in Jerusalem Life-giving Cross. In addition, Byzantium established control over Armenia. After this defeat, Persia never recovered and was soon conquered by the Arabs. However, the Byzantines also failed to protect the returned areas from Arab conquest.

BYZANTINE-ARAB WARS (VII-IX centuries)

Wars of the Byzantine Empire and the Arab Caliphate for dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.

The unified Arab state, created on the Arabian Peninsula by the Prophet Muhammad, easily crushed the Persian Empire, shocked by defeats from the troops of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius. In 633, Arab troops invaded the Persian possessions. Their conquest of Persia was completed by 651.

At the same time, Byzantium was subjected to Arab invasion. The army of the caliphate, numbering up to 27 thousand people, invaded Syria and Palestine. In 634, two years after the death of Muhammad, under the first caliph (i.e., “vicar of the prophet”) Abu Bekr, the Arabs captured the first significant Byzantine fortress of Bosra across the Jordan River. The following year Damascus passed into their hands. On August 20, 636, a 40,000-strong Byzantine army was defeated at the Yarmouk River, and all of Syria came under Arab control.

The defeat of the Byzantines was facilitated by discord between their leaders Vahan and Theodore. Both of them fell in the Battle of Yarmouk. In 638, after a two-year siege, Jerusalem surrendered to the Arabs. At the same time, Arab troops occupied Mesopotamia. In 639, Arab troops appeared at the borders of Egypt, but their further advance was stopped by the plague that spread in Syria and Palestine, which claimed the lives of 25 thousand people.

In 641, shortly after the death of Emperor Heraclius, the provincial capital of Alexandria passed into Arab hands. By the end of the 640s, Byzantine troops completely left Egypt. The Arabs also captured other Byzantine territories in North Africa, as well as part of Asia Minor.

In the 650s, the Arab governor of Syria and the future caliph of Moavia created a fleet in which mainly Greeks and Syrians served. This fleet was soon able to fight on equal terms with the Byzantine fleet, the strongest in the Mediterranean. Further Arab conquests were temporarily stopped due to a clash between Caliph Ali and the Syrian governor. In 661, after an internecine war and the murder of Ali, Moavia became caliph and, moving the capital to Damascus, resumed military operations against Byzantium. In the late 660s, the Arab fleet repeatedly approached Constantinople. However, the besieged, led by the energetic Emperor Constantine IV, repulsed all attacks, and the Arab fleet was destroyed with the help of “Greek fire” - an explosive ejected from special vessels (siphons) and ignited when it hit the ships. The peculiarity of Greek fire was that it could burn on the surface of water. In 677, Arab ships were forced to leave their base at Cyzicus near Constantinople and go to Syrian ports, but almost all of them were lost during a storm near south coast Asia Minor.

The Arab land army was also defeated in Asia Minor, and Moavia was forced to conclude a peace with Constantine, according to which the Byzantines annually paid a small tribute to the Arabs. In 687, the Byzantines managed to recapture Armenia, and the island of Cyprus was recognized as the joint possession of the empire and the caliphate.

At the end of the 7th - beginning of the 8th century, the Arabs conquered the last Byzantine possessions in North Africa - Carthage and the fortress of Septem (present-day Ceuta). In 717, the Arabs, led by the caliph's brother, the Syrian governor Maslama, approached Constantinople and began a siege on August 15. On September 1, the Arab fleet, numbering more than 1,800 ships, occupied the entire space in front of Constantinople. The Byzantines blocked the Golden Horn Bay with a chain on wooden floats, and the fleet led by Emperor Leo III inflicted a heavy defeat on the enemy.

His victory was greatly facilitated by the “Greek fire”. The siege dragged on. In winter, hunger and disease began in the Arab camp. The Bulgarians, allies of Byzantium, destroyed Arab troops sent to Thrace for food. By spring, Maslama's army found itself in a desperate situation. According to the Byzantine historian Theophanes, the Arabs “devoured all kinds of carrion, horses, donkeys and camels. They even say that they ate human corpses and their own droppings in pots, mixing it with leaven.” The Arab squadron, sent by the new caliph Omar II, arrived in the spring of 718 and was defeated by the Byzantine fleet. At the same time, some of the Egyptian Christian sailors, along with their ships, went over to the side of the emperor. Reinforcements coming overland were stopped by Byzantine cavalry at Nicaea and turned back. A plague epidemic began in the Arab army near Constantinople, and on August 15, 718, exactly a year later, the siege was lifted.

The retreating fleet was partially burned by the Byzantines, and partially lost during a storm in the Aegean Sea. Of the 180 thousand Arab warriors and sailors who took part in the campaign, no more than 40 thousand returned home, and out of more than 2.5 thousand ships, only 5. This failure undermined the forces of the caliphate and forced the Arabs to abandon full-scale military operations against the Byzantine Empire for two decades. .

The last major Arab invasion of Byzantium occurred in 739. But already in 740, in the battle near the town of Akroinon in Asia Minor, the army of Emperor Leo III and his son Constantine V almost completely destroyed the Arab army. After this, the Byzantines conquered part of Syria, and the expansion of the Arabs into Asia Minor and Eastern Europe stopped forever.

In the second half of the 10th century, Byzantium resumed expansion in the Eastern Mediterranean. On March 7, 961, the Byzantine commander Nikephoros Phocas, having gathered the entire fleet of the empire and 24 thousand soldiers, defeated the Arab fleet off Crete and landed on the island. Following this, the Byzantines killed the entire Arab population of Crete. Having become Emperor Nikephoros II in 963, Phocas continued the war with the Arabs. In 965 he captured Cyprus and Cilicia, and in 969 Antioch. Later, in the 11th century, these territories were conquered by the Seljuk Turks.

Russian-Byzantine wars is a series of military conflicts between Old Russian state And Byzantium in the period from the second half of the 9th century to the first half of the 11th century. At their core, these wars were not wars in the full sense of the term, but rather - hiking and raids.

First trip Rus' against Byzantine Empire(with the proven participation of Russian troops) began a raid in the early 830s. The exact date is not indicated anywhere, but most historians point to the 830s. The only mention of the campaign is in the Life of St. George of Amastrida. The Slavs attacked Amastris and plundered it - this is all that can be extracted from the work of the supposed Patriarch Ignatius. The rest of the information (for example, the Russians tried to open the coffin of St. George, but their arms and legs were lost) does not stand up to criticism.

The next attack was on Constantinople (Constantinople, modern Istanbul, Türkiye), which occurred in 866 (according to Tales of Bygone Years) or 860 (according to European chronicles).

The leader of this campaign is not indicated anywhere (as in the campaign of the 830s), but we can almost certainly say that it was Askold and Dir. The raid was carried out on Constantinople from the Black Sea, which the Byzantines did not expect. It should be noted that at that time the Byzantine Empire was greatly weakened by long and not very successful wars with the Arabs. When the Byzantines saw, according to various sources, from 200 to 360 ships with Russian soldiers, they locked themselves in the city and made no attempt to repel the attack. Askold and Dir calmly plundered the entire coast, receiving more than enough booty, and took Constantinople under siege. The Byzantines were in panic; at first they did not even know who attacked them. After a month and a half siege, when the city actually fell, and several dozen men-at-arms could have taken it, the Rus unexpectedly left the Bosphorus coast. The exact reason for the retreat is unknown, but Constantinople miraculously survived. The author of the chronicles and an eyewitness to the events, Patriarch Photius, describes this with helpless despair: “The salvation of the city was in the hands of the enemies and its preservation depended on their generosity... the city was not taken by their mercy... and the disgrace from this generosity intensifies the painful feeling...”

There are three versions of the reason for the departure:

fear of the arrival of reinforcements;
· reluctance to be drawn into a siege;
· pre-thought-out plans for Constantinople.

The latest version of the “cunning plan” is confirmed by the fact that in 867 the Russians sent an embassy to Constantinople, and a trade agreement was concluded with Byzantium, moreover, Askold and Dir committed first baptism of Rus'(unofficial, not as global as Vladimir’s baptism).

The campaign of 907 is indicated only in a few ancient Russian chronicles; it is not in the Byzantine and European chronicles (or they are lost). However, the conclusion of a new Russian-Byzantine treaty as a result of the campaign has been proven and is beyond doubt. It was that legendary hike Prophetic Oleg when he nailed his shield to the gates of Constantinople.

Prince Oleg attacked Constantinople with 2,000 rooks from the sea and horsemen from the land. The Byzantines surrendered and the result of the campaign was the treaty of 907, and then the treaty of 911.

Unconfirmed legends about the campaign:

· Oleg put his ships on wheels and moved overland with a fair wind to Constantinople;
· the Greeks asked for peace and brought poisoned food and wine to Oleg, but he refused;
· the Greeks paid each warrior 12 gold hryvnia, plus separate payments to all the princes - Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Rostov, Polotsk and other cities (plausible).

In any case, the texts of the treaties of 907 and 911, included in the Tale of Bygone Years, confirm the fact of the campaign and its successful result. After their signing, trade Ancient Rus' reached a new level, and Russian merchants appeared in Constantinople. Thus, its significance is great, even if it was intended as an ordinary robbery.

Reasons for the two campaigns (941 and 943) Prince Igor to Constantinople are not precisely known, all the information is unclear and partially reliable. Russian Byzantine war historical

There is a version that Russian troops helped the Byzantines in the conflict with the Khazar Kaganate (Jews), which repressed the Greeks on its territory. At first, the fighting developed successfully, but something happened after the defeat of the Russians in the Kerch Strait area near Tmutarakan (some kind of negotiations with an element of blackmail), and the ancient Russian army was forced to march against Byzantium. Cambridge document reads: “And he went against his will and fought against Kustantina at sea for four months...” Kustantina is, of course, Constantinople. Be that as it may, the Russians left the Jews alone and moved towards the Greeks. In the battle of Constantinople, the Byzantines introduced Prince Igor to “Greek fire” (an incendiary mixture of oil, sulfur and oil, which was shot through a copper pipe using bellows - pneumatically). The Russian ships retreated, and their defeat was finally sealed by the onset of a storm. The Byzantine Emperor Roman himself prevented the second campaign by sending an embassy to Igor with the goal of returning peace. A peace treaty was signed in 944, the result of the conflict was a draw - neither side gained anything except the return of peaceful relations.

The Russian-Byzantine conflict of 970-971 ended with approximately the same result during the reign of Svyatoslav. The reason was disagreements and mutual claims on the territory of Bulgaria. In 971, Prince Svyatoslav signed a peace treaty, and upon returning home he was killed by the Pechenegs. After this, most of Bulgaria was annexed to Byzantium.

In 988 Prince Vladimir the Great besieged Korsun (Chersonese - modern Sevastopol), which was under Byzantine rule. The cause of the conflict is unknown, but the result was Vladimir’s marriage to the Byzantine princess Anna, and ultimately the complete baptism of Rus' (Korsun, of course, fell).

After this, peace reigned in relations between Rus' and Byzantium for many years (except for the attack of 800 renegades in 1024 on the Byzantine island of Lemnos; all participants in the campaign were killed).

The reason for the conflict in 1043 was an attack on a Russian monastery in Athos and the murder of a noble Russian merchant in Constantinople. The events of the sea campaign were identical to Igor's campaign, including the storm and Greek fire. Led the campaign Prince Yaroslav the Wise(He was called wise not for this battle, but for the introduction of “Russian Truth” - the first set of laws). Peace was concluded in 1046 and sealed by the marriage of the son of Yaroslav (Vsevolod) with the daughter of the Byzantine emperor.

Relations between Rus' and Byzantium have always been closely connected. The abundance of conflicts is explained by the formation of statehood in Rus' during that period (this was the case with the ancient Germans and Franks with the Roman Empire, and with many other countries at the stage of formation). Aggressive foreign policy led to the recognition of the state, the development of the economy and trade (plus income from robbery, let’s not forget), as well as the development international relations, no matter how strange it may sound.

The cooperation between Rus' and Byzantium was beneficial to both Rus' (trade, culture, access to other states with the help of the Greeks) and the Byzantine Empire (military assistance in the fight against the Arabs, Saracens, Khazars, etc.).

100 great wars Sokolov Boris Vadimovich

BYZANTINE-ARAB WARS (VII–IX centuries)

BYZANTINE-ARAB WARS

(VII–IX centuries)

Wars of the Byzantine Empire and the Arab Caliphate for dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.

In the 650s, the Arab governor of Syria and future caliph of Moab created a fleet in which mainly Greeks and Syrians served. This fleet was soon able to fight on equal terms with the Byzantine fleet, the strongest in the Mediterranean. Further Arab conquests were temporarily stopped due to a clash between Caliph Ali and the Syrian governor. In 661, after an internecine war and the murder of Ali, Moavia became caliph and, moving the capital to Damascus, resumed military operations against Byzantium. In the late 660s, the Arab fleet repeatedly approached Constantinople. However, the besieged, led by the energetic Emperor Constantine IV, repulsed all attacks, and the Arab fleet was destroyed with the help of “Greek fire” - an explosive ejected from special vessels (siphons) and ignited when it hit the ships. The peculiarity of Greek fire was that it could burn on the surface of water. In 677, Arab ships were forced to leave their base at Cyzicus near Constantinople and go to Syrian ports, but almost all of them were lost during a storm off the southern coast of Asia Minor.

The last major Arab invasion of Byzantium occurred in 739. But already in 740, in the battle near the town of Akroinon in Asia Minor, the army of Emperor Leo III and his son Constantine V almost completely destroyed the Arab army. After this, the Byzantines reconquered part of Syria, and the expansion of the Arabs into Asia Minor and Eastern Europe ceased forever.

From the book Big Soviet Encyclopedia(software) of the author TSB

From the book 100 Great Wars author Sokolov Boris Vadimovich

EGYPTIAN-HITTIC WARS (late XIV - early XIII centuries BC) Wars between Egypt and the Hittite power (the state of Hatti), which occupied the territory of Asia Minor, for dominance in Palestine, Syria and Phenicia. According to Egyptian sources, the first to the borders Egypt attacked

From the book Special Services Russian Empire[Unique encyclopedia] author Kolpakidi Alexander Ivanovich

WARS OF ROME WITH THE BARBARIANS IN THE ERA OF THE “GREAT MIGGRATION” (end of the 4th century - 5th century) Wars of the Roman Empire with the Huns, Goths, Vandals, Slavs and other peoples who, as part of the Great Migration, left their former habitats and attacked the Roman borders. B 375

From the author's book

BYZANTINE-GOTHIC WARS (VI century) Wars of the Byzantine Empire with the kingdoms of the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Spain. The goal of the Byzantine emperor Justinian was to regain control over the territories of the former Western Roman Empire and establish the hegemony of Byzantium in

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BYZANTINE-PERSIAN WARS (VI-VII centuries) Wars between the Byzantine Empire and Persia for hegemony in the Near and Middle East. Taking advantage of the diversion of the main forces of Byzantium under Justinian the Great to Italy, the Persian king Khosrow invaded Syria, occupied and plundered

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ARAB CONQUESTS (VII–VIII centuries) The Arab tribes, which had lived on the Arabian Peninsula since the third millennium BC, were united into a single state in the 7th century by the Prophet Muhammad, who became the founder of a new religion - Islam. This unification

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WARS OF CHARLES THE GREAT (second half of the 8th - beginning of the 9th century) Wars of the Frankish king Charles, during which he founded the Holy Roman Empire. The basis of the Frankish army was heavy cavalry, recruited from wealthy landowners - the king's vassals. The infantry consisted

From the author's book

RUSSIAN-BYZANTINE WARS (IX–X centuries) The goal of the Russian princes was the capture and plunder of Constantinople. Prince Svyatoslav, in addition, hoped to strengthen himself on the Danube. On the part of Byzantium, the wars with Russia were of a defensive nature. In 941, the Russian prince Igor (Ingvar)

From the author's book

BYZANTINE-BULGARIAN WARS (X - early XI centuries) Wars of the Byzantine Empire with the Bulgarian Kingdom. The goal of the Byzantines was to capture Bulgaria. The Bulgarian kings sought to seize Constantinople and seize the Byzantine inheritance in the Balkans. In 912 after

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GERMAN-ITALIAN WARS (middle of the 10th - end of the 12th century) Wars of the German emperors in order to establish control over Italy. The emperors were opposed by the troops of the Pope and the Italian feudal lords who supported him. In 951, Emperor Otto I managed to capture

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RUSSIAN-LITHUANIA WARS (late 15th - early 16th centuries) Wars of the Moscow and Lithuanian Grand Duchies for the East Slavic lands that were part of Lithuania. From the middle of the 15th century, the influence of the Catholic Church in Lithuania increased, associated with the strengthening of the union of this country with

From the author's book

WARS OF THE GREAT MUGHAL STATE (XVI-XVII centuries) These wars are associated with the conquests and subsequent civil strife in the Mughal Empire - a state that at that time had the most powerful army in Asia. At the beginning of the 16th century, the territory of the Delhi Sultanate was invaded

From the author's book

POLISH-UKRAINIAN WARS (first half of the 17th century) Wars Ukrainian people against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for its independence. After the Union of Lublin, the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, located south of Polesie, became part of the Kingdom of Poland, which included

From the author's book

RUSSIAN-TURKISH WARS (XYIII–XIX centuries) Wars of the Russian and Ottoman Empires for hegemony in the Black Sea basin and the Balkans. The first large-scale clash between Russian and Turkish troops occurred in 1677–1678 in Ukraine. In August 1677, the Turkish army under