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✪ Earth spaceship(Episode 14) - Atmosphere

✪ Why wasn’t the atmosphere pulled into the vacuum of space?

✪ Entry of the Soyuz TMA-8 spacecraft into the Earth’s atmosphere

✪ Atmosphere structure, meaning, study

✪ O. S. Ugolnikov "Upper Atmosphere. Meeting of Earth and Space"

Subtitles

Atmospheric boundary

The atmosphere is considered to be that region around the Earth in which the gaseous medium rotates together with the Earth as a single whole. The atmosphere passes into interplanetary space gradually, in the exosphere, starting at an altitude of 500-1000 km from the Earth's surface.

According to the definition proposed by the International Aviation Federation, the boundary of the atmosphere and space is drawn along the Karman line, located at an altitude of about 100 km, above which aviation flights become completely impossible. NASA uses the 122 kilometers (400,000 ft) mark as the atmospheric limit, where the shuttles switch from powered maneuvering to aerodynamic maneuvering.

Physical properties

In addition to the gases indicated in the table, the atmosphere contains Cl 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (Cl2))) , SO 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (SO2))) , NH 3 (\displaystyle (\ce (NH3))) , CO (\displaystyle ((\ce (CO)))) , O 3 (\displaystyle ((\ce (O3)))) , NO 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (NO2))), hydrocarbons, HCl (\displaystyle (\ce (HCl))) , HF (\displaystyle (\ce (HF))) , HBr (\displaystyle (\ce (HBr))) , HI (\displaystyle ((\ce (HI)))), couples Hg (\displaystyle (\ce (Hg))) , I 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (I2))) , Br 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (Br2))), as well as many other gases in small quantities. The troposphere constantly contains a large amount of suspended solid and liquid particles (aerosol). The rarest gas in the Earth's atmosphere is Rn (\displaystyle (\ce (Rn))) .

The structure of the atmosphere

Atmospheric boundary layer

The lower layer of the troposphere (1-2 km thick), in which the state and properties of the Earth's surface directly affect the dynamics of the atmosphere.

Troposphere

Its upper limit is at an altitude of 8-10 km in polar, 10-12 km in temperate and 16-18 km in tropical latitudes; lower in winter than in summer.
The lower, main layer of the atmosphere contains more than 80% of the total mass atmospheric air and about 90% of all water vapor available in the atmosphere. Turbulence and convection are highly developed in the troposphere, clouds appear, and cyclones and anticyclones develop. Temperature decreases with increasing altitude with an average vertical gradient of 0.65°/100 meters.

Tropopause

The transition layer from the troposphere to the stratosphere, a layer of the atmosphere in which the decrease in temperature with height stops.

Stratosphere

A layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Characterized by a slight change in temperature in the 11-25 km layer (lower layer of the stratosphere) and an increase in the 25-40 km layer from minus 56.5 to plus 0.8 ° C (upper layer of the stratosphere or inversion region). Having reached a value of about 273 K (almost 0 °C) at an altitude of about 40 km, the temperature remains constant up to an altitude of about 55 km. This area constant temperature called the stratopause and is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere.

Stratopause

The boundary layer of the atmosphere between the stratosphere and mesosphere. In the vertical temperature distribution there is a maximum (about 0 °C).

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

The upper limit is about 800 km. The temperature rises to altitudes of 200-300 km, where it reaches values of the order of 1500 K, after which it remains almost constant to high altitudes. Under the influence of solar radiation and cosmic radiation, ionization of the air (“auroras”) occurs - the main regions of the ionosphere lie inside the thermosphere. At altitudes above 300 km, atomic oxygen predominates. The upper limit of the thermosphere is largely determined by the current activity of the Sun. During periods of low activity - for example, in 2008-2009 - there is a noticeable decrease in the size of this layer.

Thermopause

The region of the atmosphere adjacent above the thermosphere. In this region, the absorption of solar radiation is negligible and the temperature does not actually change with altitude.

Exosphere (scattering sphere)

Up to an altitude of 100 km, the atmosphere is a homogeneous, well-mixed mixture of gases. In higher layers, the distribution of gases by height depends on their molecular weights; the concentration of heavier gases decreases faster with distance from the Earth's surface. Due to the decrease in gas density, the temperature drops from 0 °C in the stratosphere to minus 110 °C in the mesosphere. However, the kinetic energy of individual particles at altitudes of 200-250 km corresponds to a temperature of ~ 150 °C. Above 200 km, significant fluctuations in temperature and gas density in time and space are observed.

At an altitude of about 2000-3500 km, the exosphere gradually turns into the so-called near space vacuum, which is filled with rare particles of interplanetary gas, mainly hydrogen atoms. But this gas represents only part of the interplanetary matter. The other part consists of dust particles of cometary and meteoric origin. In addition to extremely rarefied dust particles, electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of solar and galactic origin penetrates into this space.

Review

Based on electrical properties in the atmosphere, they distinguish neutrosphere And ionosphere .

Depending on the composition of the gas in the atmosphere, they emit homosphere And heterosphere. Heterosphere- This is the area where gravity affects the separation of gases, since their mixing at such an altitude is negligible. This implies a variable composition of the heterosphere. Below it lies a well-mixed, homogeneous part of the atmosphere, called the homosphere. The boundary between these layers is called the turbopause, it lies at an altitude of about 120 km.

Other properties of the atmosphere and effects on the human body

Already at an altitude of 5 km above sea level, an untrained person begins to experience oxygen starvation and without adaptation, a person’s performance is significantly reduced. The physiological zone of the atmosphere ends here. Human breathing becomes impossible at an altitude of 9 km, although up to approximately 115 km the atmosphere contains oxygen.

The atmosphere supplies us with the oxygen necessary for breathing. However, due to the drop in the total pressure of the atmosphere, as you rise to altitude, the partial pressure of oxygen decreases accordingly.

History of atmospheric formation

According to the most common theory, the Earth's atmosphere has had three different compositions throughout its history. Initially, it consisted of light gases (hydrogen and helium) captured from interplanetary space. This is the so-called primary atmosphere. At the next stage, active volcanic activity led to the saturation of the atmosphere with gases other than hydrogen (carbon dioxide, ammonia, water vapor). This is how it was formed secondary atmosphere. This atmosphere was restorative. Further, the process of atmosphere formation was determined by the following factors:

leakage of light gases (hydrogen and helium) into interplanetary space;
chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, lightning discharges and some other factors.

Gradually these factors led to the formation tertiary atmosphere, characterized by a much lower content of hydrogen and a much higher content of nitrogen and carbon dioxide (formed as a result of chemical reactions from ammonia and hydrocarbons).

Nitrogen

Education large quantity nitrogen is caused by the oxidation of the ammonia-hydrogen atmosphere by molecular oxygen O 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (O2))), which began to come from the surface of the planet as a result of photosynthesis, starting 3 billion years ago. Also nitrogen N 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (N2))) released into the atmosphere as a result of denitrification of nitrates and other nitrogen-containing compounds. Nitrogen is oxidized by ozone to NO (\displaystyle ((\ce (NO)))) in the upper layers of the atmosphere.

Nitrogen N 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (N2))) reacts only under specific conditions (for example, during a lightning discharge). The oxidation of molecular nitrogen by ozone during electrical discharges is used in small quantities in the industrial production of nitrogen fertilizers. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and nodule bacteria, which form rhizobial symbiosis with leguminous plants, which can be effective green manures - plants that do not deplete, but enrich the soil with natural fertilizers, can oxidize it with low energy consumption and convert it into a biologically active form.

Oxygen

The composition of the atmosphere began to change radically with the appearance of living organisms on Earth as a result of photosynthesis, accompanied by the release of oxygen and the absorption of carbon dioxide. Initially, oxygen was spent on the oxidation of reduced compounds - ammonia, hydrocarbons, ferrous form of iron contained in the oceans and others. At the end of this stage, the oxygen content in the atmosphere began to increase. Gradually, a modern atmosphere with oxidizing properties formed. Since this caused serious and abrupt changes in many processes occurring in the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, this event was called the Oxygen Catastrophe.

Noble gases

Air pollution

IN Lately Man began to influence the evolution of the atmosphere. The result of human activity has been a constant increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels accumulated in previous geological eras. Enormous quantities are consumed during photosynthesis and are absorbed by the world's oceans. This gas enters the atmosphere due to the decomposition of carbonate rocks and organic substances of plant and animal origin, as well as due to volcanism and production activities person. Over the last 100 years content CO 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (CO2))) in the atmosphere increased by 10%, with the bulk (360 billion tons) coming from fuel combustion. If the growth rate of fuel combustion continues, then in the next 200-300 years the amount CO 2 (\displaystyle (\ce (CO2))) in the atmosphere will double and may lead to

Atmosphere (from ancient Greek ἀτμός - steam and σφαῖρα - ball) is a gas shell (geosphere) surrounding planet Earth. Its inner surface covers the hydrosphere and partly the earth's crust, while its outer surface borders the near-Earth part of outer space.

The set of branches of physics and chemistry that study the atmosphere is usually called atmospheric physics. The atmosphere determines the weather on the Earth's surface, meteorology studies weather, and climatology deals with long-term climate variations.

Physical properties

The thickness of the atmosphere is approximately 120 km from the Earth's surface. The total mass of air in the atmosphere is (5.1-5.3) 1018 kg. Of these, the mass of dry air is (5.1352 ± 0.0003) 1018 kg, the total mass of water vapor is on average 1.27 1016 kg.

The molar mass of clean dry air is 28.966 g/mol, and the density of air at the sea surface is approximately 1.2 kg/m3. The pressure at 0 °C at sea level is 101.325 kPa; critical temperature - −140.7 °C (~132.4 K); critical pressure - 3.7 MPa; Cp at 0 °C - 1.0048·103 J/(kg·K), Cv - 0.7159·103 J/(kg·K) (at 0 °C). Solubility of air in water (by mass) at 0 °C - 0.0036%, at 25 °C - 0.0023%.

The following are accepted as “normal conditions” at the Earth’s surface: density 1.2 kg/m3, barometric pressure 101.35 kPa, temperature plus 20 °C and relative humidity 50 %. These conditional indicators have purely engineering significance.

Chemical composition

The Earth's atmosphere arose as a result of the release of gases during volcanic eruptions. With the advent of the oceans and the biosphere, it was formed due to gas exchange with water, plants, animals and the products of their decomposition in soils and swamps.

Currently, the Earth's atmosphere consists mainly of gases and various impurities (dust, water droplets, ice crystals, sea salts, combustion products).

The concentration of gases that make up the atmosphere is almost constant, with the exception of water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

Composition of dry air


Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Water
Carbon dioxide
Neon
Helium
Methane
Krypton
Hydrogen
Xenon
Nitrous oxide

In addition to the gases indicated in the table, the atmosphere contains SO2, NH3, CO, ozone, hydrocarbons, HCl, HF, Hg vapor, I2, as well as NO and many other gases in small quantities. The troposphere constantly contains a large amount of suspended solid and liquid particles (aerosol).

The structure of the atmosphere

Troposphere

Its upper limit is at an altitude of 8-10 km in polar, 10-12 km in temperate and 16-18 km in tropical latitudes; lower in winter than in summer. The lower, main layer of the atmosphere contains more than 80% of the total mass of atmospheric air and about 90% of the total water vapor present in the atmosphere. Turbulence and convection are highly developed in the troposphere, clouds arise, and cyclones and anticyclones develop. Temperature decreases with increasing altitude with an average vertical gradient of 0.65°/100 m

Tropopause

The transition layer from the troposphere to the stratosphere, a layer of the atmosphere in which the decrease in temperature with height stops.

Stratosphere

A layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Characterized by a slight change in temperature in the 11-25 km layer (lower layer of the stratosphere) and an increase in temperature in the 25-40 km layer from −56.5 to 0.8 ° C (upper layer of the stratosphere or inversion region). Having reached a value of about 273 K (almost 0 °C) at an altitude of about 40 km, the temperature remains constant up to an altitude of about 55 km. This region of constant temperature is called the stratopause and is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere.

Stratopause

The boundary layer of the atmosphere between the stratosphere and mesosphere. In the vertical temperature distribution there is a maximum (about 0 °C).

Mesosphere

The mesosphere begins at an altitude of 50 km and extends to 80-90 km. Temperature decreases with height with an average vertical gradient of (0.25-0.3)°/100 m. The main energy process is radiant heat transfer. Complex photochemical processes involving free radicals, vibrationally excited molecules, etc. cause atmospheric luminescence.

Mesopause

Transitional layer between the mesosphere and thermosphere. There is a minimum in the vertical temperature distribution (about -90 °C).

Karman Line

The height above sea level, which is conventionally accepted as the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and space. According to the FAI definition, the Karman line is located at an altitude of 100 km above sea level.

Boundary of the Earth's atmosphere

Thermosphere

The upper limit is about 800 km. The temperature rises to altitudes of 200-300 km, where it reaches values of the order of 1500 K, after which it remains almost constant to high altitudes. Under the influence of ultraviolet and x-ray solar radiation and cosmic radiation, ionization of the air (“auroras”) occurs - the main regions of the ionosphere lie inside the thermosphere. At altitudes above 300 km, atomic oxygen predominates. The upper limit of the thermosphere is largely determined by the current activity of the Sun. During periods of low activity - for example, in 2008-2009 - there is a noticeable decrease in the size of this layer.

Thermopause

The region of the atmosphere adjacent to the thermosphere. In this region, the absorption of solar radiation is negligible and the temperature does not actually change with altitude.

Exosphere (scattering sphere)

The exosphere is a dispersion zone, the outer part of the thermosphere, located above 700 km. The gas in the exosphere is very rarefied, and from here its particles leak into interplanetary space (dissipation).

Up to an altitude of 100 km, the atmosphere is a homogeneous, well-mixed mixture of gases. In higher layers, the distribution of gases by height depends on their molecular weights; the concentration of heavier gases decreases faster with distance from the Earth's surface. Due to the decrease in gas density, the temperature drops from 0 °C in the stratosphere to −110 °C in the mesosphere. However, the kinetic energy of individual particles at altitudes of 200-250 km corresponds to a temperature of ~150 °C. Above 200 km, significant fluctuations in temperature and gas density in time and space are observed.

At an altitude of about 2000-3500 km, the exosphere gradually turns into the so-called near-space vacuum, which is filled with highly rarefied particles of interplanetary gas, mainly hydrogen atoms. But this gas represents only part of the interplanetary matter. The other part consists of dust particles of cometary and meteoric origin. In addition to extremely rarefied dust particles, electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of solar and galactic origin penetrates into this space.

The troposphere accounts for about 80% of the mass of the atmosphere, the stratosphere - about 20%; the mass of the mesosphere is no more than 0.3%, the thermosphere is less than 0.05% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Based on the electrical properties in the atmosphere, the neutronosphere and ionosphere are distinguished. It is currently believed that the atmosphere extends to an altitude of 2000-3000 km.

Depending on the composition of the gas in the atmosphere, homosphere and heterosphere are distinguished. The heterosphere is an area where gravity affects the separation of gases, since their mixing at such a height is negligible. This implies a variable composition of the heterosphere. Below it lies a well-mixed, homogeneous part of the atmosphere called the homosphere. The boundary between these layers is called the turbopause; it lies at an altitude of about 120 km.

Other properties of the atmosphere and effects on the human body

The human lungs constantly contain about 3 liters of alveolar air. Partial pressure of oxygen in alveolar air at normal atmospheric pressure is 110 mmHg. Art., carbon dioxide pressure - 40 mm Hg. Art., and water vapor - 47 mm Hg. Art. With increasing altitude, oxygen pressure drops, and the total vapor pressure of water and carbon dioxide in the lungs remains almost constant - about 87 mm Hg. Art. The supply of oxygen to the lungs will completely stop when the ambient air pressure becomes equal to this value.

At an altitude of about 19-20 km, the atmospheric pressure drops to 47 mm Hg. Art. Therefore, at this altitude, water and interstitial fluid begin to boil in the human body. Outside the pressurized cabin at these altitudes, death occurs almost instantly. Thus, from the point of view of human physiology, “space” begins already at an altitude of 15-19 km.

Dense layers of air - the troposphere and stratosphere - protect us from lethal effect radiation. With sufficient rarefaction of air, at altitudes of more than 36 km, ionizing radiation - primary cosmic rays - has an intense effect on the body; At altitudes of more than 40 km, the ultraviolet part of the solar spectrum is dangerous for humans.

As you climb everything greater height above the Earth's surface, such familiar phenomena observed in the lower layers of the atmosphere as the propagation of sound, the occurrence of aerodynamic lift and drag, heat transfer by convection, etc. gradually weaken and then completely disappear.

In rarefied layers of air, sound propagation is impossible. Up to altitudes of 60-90 km, it is still possible to use air resistance and lift for controlled aerodynamic flight. But starting from altitudes of 100-130 km, the concepts of the M number and the sound barrier, familiar to every pilot, lose their meaning: there lies the conventional Karman line, beyond which the region of purely ballistic flight begins, which can only be controlled using reactive forces.

At altitudes above 100 km, the atmosphere is devoid of another remarkable property - the ability to absorb, conduct and transmit thermal energy by convection (i.e. by mixing air). This means that various elements of equipment, orbital equipment space station will not be able to cool outside in the way that is usually done on an airplane - with the help of air jets and air radiators. At this altitude, as in space generally, the only way to transfer heat is thermal radiation.

History of atmospheric formation

According to the most common theory, the Earth's atmosphere has had three different compositions over time. Initially, it consisted of light gases (hydrogen and helium) captured from interplanetary space. This is the so-called primary atmosphere (about four billion years ago). At the next stage, active volcanic activity led to the saturation of the atmosphere with gases other than hydrogen (carbon dioxide, ammonia, water vapor). This is how the secondary atmosphere was formed (about three billion years before the present day). This atmosphere was restorative. Further, the process of atmosphere formation was determined by the following factors:

leakage of light gases (hydrogen and helium) into interplanetary space;
chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, lightning discharges and some other factors.

Gradually, these factors led to the formation of a tertiary atmosphere, characterized by much less hydrogen and much more nitrogen and carbon dioxide (formed as a result of chemical reactions from ammonia and hydrocarbons).

Nitrogen

The formation of a large amount of nitrogen N2 is due to the oxidation of the ammonia-hydrogen atmosphere by molecular oxygen O2, which began to come from the surface of the planet as a result of photosynthesis, starting 3 billion years ago. Nitrogen N2 is also released into the atmosphere as a result of denitrification of nitrates and other nitrogen-containing compounds. Nitrogen is oxidized by ozone to NO in the upper atmosphere.

Nitrogen N2 reacts only under specific conditions (for example, during a lightning discharge). The oxidation of molecular nitrogen by ozone during electrical discharges is used in small quantities in the industrial production of nitrogen fertilizers. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and nodule bacteria that form rhizobial symbiosis with leguminous plants, the so-called, can oxidize it with low energy consumption and convert it into a biologically active form. green manure.

Oxygen

The composition of the atmosphere began to change radically with the appearance of living organisms on Earth, as a result of photosynthesis, accompanied by the release of oxygen and the absorption of carbon dioxide. Initially, oxygen was spent on the oxidation of reduced compounds - ammonia, hydrocarbons, ferrous form of iron contained in the oceans, etc. At the end of this stage, the oxygen content in the atmosphere began to increase. Gradually, a modern atmosphere with oxidizing properties formed. Since this caused serious and abrupt changes in many processes occurring in the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, this event was called the Oxygen Catastrophe.

During the Phanerozoic, the composition of the atmosphere and oxygen content underwent changes. They correlated primarily with the rate of deposition of organic sediment. Thus, during periods of coal accumulation, the oxygen content in the atmosphere apparently significantly exceeded the modern level.

Carbon dioxide

The CO2 content in the atmosphere depends on volcanic activity and chemical processes in the earth's shells, but most of all - on the intensity of biosynthesis and decomposition of organic matter in the Earth's biosphere. Almost the entire current biomass of the planet (about 2.4 1012 tons) is formed due to carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor contained in the atmospheric air. Organics buried in the ocean, swamps and forests turn into coal, oil and natural gas.

Noble gases

Source of inert gases - argon, helium and krypton - volcanic eruptions and decay of radioactive elements. The Earth in general and the atmosphere in particular are depleted of inert gases compared to space. It is believed that the reason for this lies in the continuous leakage of gases into interplanetary space.

Air pollution

Recently, humans have begun to influence the evolution of the atmosphere. The result of his activities was a constant increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels accumulated in previous geological eras. Huge amounts of CO2 are consumed during photosynthesis and absorbed by the world's oceans. This gas enters the atmosphere due to the decomposition of carbonate rocks and organic substances of plant and animal origin, as well as due to volcanism and human industrial activity. Over the past 100 years, the CO2 content in the atmosphere has increased by 10%, with the bulk (360 billion tons) coming from fuel combustion. If the growth rate of fuel combustion continues, then in the next 200-300 years the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere will double and could lead to global climate change.

Fuel combustion is the main source of polluting gases (CO, NO, SO2). Sulfur dioxide is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to SO3, and nitrogen oxide to NO2 in the upper layers of the atmosphere, which in turn interact with water vapor, and the resulting sulfuric acid H2SO4 and nitric acid HNO3 fall to the surface of the Earth in the form of the so-called. acid rain. The use of internal combustion engines leads to significant atmospheric pollution with nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and lead compounds (tetraethyl lead) Pb(CH3CH2)4.

Aerosol pollution of the atmosphere is due to both natural causes (volcanic eruptions, dust storms, entrainment of droplets sea water and plant pollen, etc.), and economic activity people (ore mining and building materials, fuel combustion, cement production, etc.). Intensive large-scale emission of solid particles into the atmosphere is one of the possible reasons changes in the planet's climate.

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STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere(from ancient Greek ἀτμός - steam and σφαῖρα - ball) - the gas shell (geosphere) surrounding planet Earth. Its inner surface covers the hydrosphere and partly the earth's crust, while its outer surface borders the near-Earth part of outer space.

Physical properties

The thickness of the atmosphere is approximately 120 km from the Earth's surface. The total mass of air in the atmosphere is (5.1-5.3) 10 18 kg. Of these, the mass of dry air is (5.1352 ± 0.0003) 10 18 kg, the total mass of water vapor is on average 1.27 10 16 kg.

The molar mass of clean dry air is 28.966 g/mol, and the density of air at the sea surface is approximately 1.2 kg/m3. The pressure at 0 °C at sea level is 101.325 kPa; critical temperature - −140.7 °C; critical pressure - 3.7 MPa; C p at 0 °C - 1.0048·10 3 J/(kg·K), C v - 0.7159·10 3 J/(kg·K) (at 0 °C). Solubility of air in water (by mass) at 0 °C - 0.0036%, at 25 °C - 0.0023%.

The following are accepted as “normal conditions” at the Earth’s surface: density 1.2 kg/m3, barometric pressure 101.35 kPa, temperature plus 20 °C and relative humidity 50%. These conditional indicators have purely engineering significance.

The structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere has a layered structure. The layers of the atmosphere differ from each other in air temperature, its density, the amount of water vapor in the air and other properties.

Troposphere(Ancient Greek τρόπος - “turn”, “change” and σφαῖρα - “ball”) - the lower, most studied layer of the atmosphere, 8-10 km high in the polar regions, up to 10-12 km in temperate latitudes, at the equator - 16-18 km.

When rising in the troposphere, the temperature decreases by an average of 0.65 K every 100 m and reaches 180-220 K in the upper part. This upper layer of the troposphere, in which the decrease in temperature with height stops, is called the tropopause. The next layer of the atmosphere, located above the troposphere, is called the stratosphere.

More than 80% of the total mass of atmospheric air is concentrated in the troposphere, turbulence and convection are highly developed, the predominant part of water vapor is concentrated, clouds arise, atmospheric fronts form, cyclones and anticyclones develop, as well as other processes that determine weather and climate. The processes occurring in the troposphere are caused primarily by convection.

The part of the troposphere within which the formation of glaciers on the earth's surface is possible is called chionosphere.

Tropopause(from the Greek τροπος - turn, change and παῦσις - stop, termination) - a layer of the atmosphere in which the decrease in temperature with height stops; transition layer from the troposphere to the stratosphere. In the earth's atmosphere, the tropopause is located at altitudes from 8-12 km (above sea level) in the polar regions and up to 16-18 km above the equator. The height of the tropopause also depends on the time of year (in summer the tropopause is located higher than in winter) and cyclonic activity (in cyclones it is lower, and in anticyclones it is higher)

The thickness of the tropopause ranges from several hundred meters to 2-3 kilometers. In the subtropics, tropopause breaks are observed due to powerful jet currents. The tropopause over certain areas is often destroyed and re-formed.

Stratosphere(from Latin stratum - flooring, layer) - a layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Characterized by a slight change in temperature in the 11-25 km layer (lower layer of the stratosphere) and an increase in temperature in the 25-40 km layer from −56.5 to 0.8 ° C (upper layer of the stratosphere or inversion region). Having reached a value of about 273 K (almost 0 °C) at an altitude of about 40 km, the temperature remains constant up to an altitude of about 55 km. This region of constant temperature is called the stratopause and is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere. The air density in the stratosphere is tens and hundreds of times less than at sea level.

It is in the stratosphere that the ozone layer (“ozone layer”) is located (at an altitude of 15-20 to 55-60 km), which determines the upper limit of life in the biosphere. Ozone (O 3) is formed as a result of photochemical reactions most intensively at an altitude of ~30 km. total weight O 3 would constitute a layer 1.7-4.0 mm thick at normal pressure, but this is enough to absorb life-destructive ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. The destruction of O 3 occurs when it interacts with free radicals, NO, and halogen-containing compounds (including “freons”).

In the stratosphere, most of the short-wave part of ultraviolet radiation (180-200 nm) is retained and the energy of short waves is transformed. Under the influence of these rays, magnetic fields change, molecules disintegrate, ionization occurs, and new formation of gases and other chemical compounds occurs. These processes can be observed in the form of northern lights, lightning and other glows.

In the stratosphere and higher layers, under the influence of solar radiation, gas molecules dissociate into atoms (above 80 km CO 2 and H 2 dissociate, above 150 km - O 2, above 300 km - N 2). At an altitude of 200-500 km, ionization of gases also occurs in the ionosphere; at an altitude of 320 km, the concentration of charged particles (O + 2, O − 2, N + 2) is ~ 1/300 of the concentration of neutral particles. In the upper layers of the atmosphere there are free radicals - OH, HO 2, etc.

There is almost no water vapor in the stratosphere.

Flights into the stratosphere began in the 1930s. The flight on the first stratospheric balloon (FNRS-1), which was made by Auguste Picard and Paul Kipfer on May 27, 1931 to an altitude of 16.2 km, is widely known. Modern combat and supersonic commercial aircraft fly in the stratosphere at altitudes generally up to 20 km (although the dynamic ceiling can be much higher). High-altitude weather balloons rise up to 40 km; the record for an unmanned balloon is 51.8 km.

Recently, in US military circles, much attention has been paid to the development of layers of the stratosphere above 20 km, often called “pre-space”. « near space» ). It is assumed that unmanned airships and solar-powered aircraft (like NASA Pathfinder) will be able to stay at an altitude of about 30 km for a long time and provide surveillance and communications to very large areas, while remaining low-vulnerable to air defense systems; Such devices will be many times cheaper than satellites.

Stratopause- a layer of the atmosphere that is the boundary between two layers, the stratosphere and the mesosphere. In the stratosphere, temperature increases with increasing altitude, and the stratopause is the layer where the temperature reaches its maximum. The temperature of the stratopause is about 0 °C.

This phenomenon is observed not only on Earth, but also on other planets that have an atmosphere.

On Earth, the stratopause is located at an altitude of 50 - 55 km above sea level. Atmospheric pressure is about 1/1000 that of sea level.

Mesosphere(from the Greek μεσο- - “middle” and σφαῖρα - “ball”, “sphere”) - a layer of the atmosphere at altitudes from 40-50 to 80-90 km. Characterized by an increase in temperature with altitude; the maximum (about +50°C) temperature is located at an altitude of about 60 km, after which the temperature begins to decrease to −70° or −80°C. This decrease in temperature is associated with the vigorous absorption of solar radiation (radiation) by ozone. The term was adopted by the Geographical and Geophysical Union in 1951.

The gas composition of the mesosphere, like that of the underlying atmospheric layers, is constant and contains about 80% nitrogen and 20% oxygen.

The mesosphere is separated from the underlying stratosphere by the stratopause, and from the overlying thermosphere by the mesopause. Mesopause basically coincides with turbopause.

Meteors begin to glow and, as a rule, completely burn up in the mesosphere.

Noctilucent clouds may appear in the mesosphere.

For flights, the mesosphere is a kind of “dead zone” - the air here is too rarefied to support airplanes or balloons (at an altitude of 50 km the air density is 1000 times less than at sea level), and at the same time too dense for artificial flights satellites in such low orbit. Direct studies of the mesosphere are carried out mainly using suborbital weather rockets; In general, the mesosphere has been studied less well than other layers of the atmosphere, which is why scientists have nicknamed it the “ignorosphere.”

Mesopause

Mesopause- a layer of the atmosphere that separates the mesosphere and thermosphere. On Earth it is located at an altitude of 80-90 km above sea level. At the mesopause there is a temperature minimum, which is about −100 °C. Below (starting from an altitude of about 50 km) the temperature drops with height, higher (up to an altitude of about 400 km) it rises again. The mesopause coincides with the lower boundary of the region of active absorption of X-ray and short-wave ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. At this altitude noctilucent clouds are observed.

Mesopause occurs not only on Earth, but also on other planets that have an atmosphere.

Karman Line- altitude above sea level, which is conventionally accepted as the boundary between the Earth’s atmosphere and space.

According to the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) definition, the Karman line is located at an altitude of 100 km above sea level.

The height was named after Theodore von Karman, an American scientist of Hungarian origin. He was the first to determine that at approximately this altitude the atmosphere becomes so rarefied that aeronautics becomes impossible, since the speed of the aircraft required to create sufficient lift becomes greater than the first cosmic speed, and therefore, to achieve greater altitudes it is necessary to use astronautics.

The Earth's atmosphere continues beyond the Karman line. The outer part of the earth's atmosphere, the exosphere, extends to an altitude of 10 thousand km or more; at this altitude, the atmosphere consists mainly of hydrogen atoms that are capable of leaving the atmosphere.

Achieving the Karman Line was the first condition for receiving the Ansari X Prize, as this is the basis for recognizing the flight as a space flight.

Sometimes the atmosphere surrounding our planet in a thick layer is called the fifth ocean. It is not for nothing that the second name of an aircraft is an aircraft. The atmosphere is a mixture of various gases, among which nitrogen and oxygen predominate. It is thanks to the latter that life is possible on the planet in the form to which we are all accustomed. Besides them, there are 1% of other components. These are inert (not entering into chemical interactions) gases, sulfur oxide. The fifth ocean also contains mechanical impurities: dust, ash, etc. All layers of the atmosphere in total extend almost 480 km from the surface (the data are different, we will dwell on this point in more detail Further). Such an impressive thickness forms a kind of impenetrable shield that protects the planet from harmful cosmic radiation and large objects.

The following layers of the atmosphere are distinguished: the troposphere, followed by the stratosphere, then the mesosphere and, finally, the thermosphere. The given order begins at the surface of the planet. The dense layers of the atmosphere are represented by the first two. They are the ones who filter out a significant part of the harmful

The lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, extends only 12 km above sea level (18 km in the tropics). Up to 90% of water vapor is concentrated here, which is why clouds form there. Most of the air is also concentrated here. All subsequent layers of the atmosphere are colder, since the proximity to the surface allows reflected solar rays to heat the air.

The stratosphere extends to almost 50 km from the surface. Most weather balloons "float" in this layer. Some types of aircraft can also fly here. One of amazing features is the temperature regime: in the range from 25 to 40 km, the air temperature begins to increase. From -60 it rises to almost 1. Then there is a slight decrease to zero, which persists up to an altitude of 55 km. The upper limit is the infamous

Further, the mesosphere extends to almost 90 km. The air temperature here drops sharply. For every 100 meters of rise, there is a decrease of 0.3 degrees. It is sometimes called the coldest part of the atmosphere. The air density is low, but it is quite enough to create resistance to falling meteors.

The layers of the atmosphere in the usual sense end at an altitude of about 118 km. The famous auroras are formed here. The thermosphere region begins above. Due to X-rays, the ionization of those few air molecules contained in this area occurs. These processes create the so-called ionosphere (it is often included in the thermosphere and is therefore not considered separately).

Everything above 700 km is called the exosphere. air is extremely small, so they move freely without experiencing resistance due to collisions. This allows some of them to accumulate energy corresponding to 160 degrees Celsius, despite the fact that the surrounding temperature is low. Gas molecules are distributed throughout the volume of the exosphere in accordance with their mass, so the heaviest of them can be detected only in the lower part of the layer. The planet's gravity, which decreases with altitude, is no longer able to hold molecules, so high-energy cosmic particles and radiation impart an impulse to gas molecules sufficient to leave the atmosphere. This region is one of the longest: it is believed that the atmosphere completely transforms into the vacuum of space at altitudes greater than 2000 km (sometimes even the number 10,000 appears). Artificial ones rotate in orbits while still in the thermosphere.

All numbers indicated are indicative, since the boundaries of atmospheric layers depend on a number of factors, for example, on the activity of the Sun.

The atmosphere has a layered structure. The boundaries between layers are not sharp and their height depends on latitude and time of year. The layered structure is the result of temperature changes at different altitudes. Weather is formed in the troposphere (lower about 10 km: about 6 km above the poles and more than 16 km above the equator). And the upper boundary of the troposophere is higher in summer than in winter.

From the surface of the Earth upward these layers are:

Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

Exosphere

Troposphere

The lower part of the atmosphere, up to a height of 10-15 km, in which 4/5 of the total mass of atmospheric air is concentrated, is called the troposphere. It is characteristic that the temperature here drops with height by an average of 0.6°/100 m (in some cases, the vertical temperature distribution varies widely). The troposphere contains almost all of the atmospheric water vapor and produces almost all of the clouds. Turbulence is also highly developed here, especially near earth's surface, as well as in the so-called jet streams in the upper part of the troposphere.

The height to which the troposphere extends over each location on Earth varies from day to day. In addition, even on average it varies at different latitudes and in different seasons of the year. On average, the annual troposphere extends over the poles to a height of about 9 km, over temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km and above the equator up to 15-17 km. Average annual temperature air at the earth's surface is about +26° at the equator and about -23° at the north pole. At the upper boundary of the troposphere above the equator, the average temperature is about -70°, above the North Pole in winter about -65°, and in summer about -45°.

The air pressure at the upper boundary of the troposphere, corresponding to its height, is 5-8 times less than at the earth's surface. Consequently, the bulk of atmospheric air is located in the troposphere. The processes occurring in the troposphere are directly and decisively important for the weather and climate at the earth's surface.

All water vapor is concentrated in the troposphere and that is why all clouds form within the troposphere. Temperature decreases with altitude.

The sun's rays easily pass through the troposphere, and the heat that radiates from the Earth, heated by the sun's rays, accumulates in the troposphere: gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor retain heat. This mechanism of warming the atmosphere from the Earth, heated by solar radiation, is called the greenhouse effect. Precisely because the source of heat for the atmosphere is the Earth, the air temperature decreases with height

The boundary between the turbulent troposphere and the calm stratosphere is called the tropopause. This is where fast-moving winds called "jet streams" form.

It was once assumed that the temperature of the atmosphere falls above the troposophere, but measurements in the high layers of the atmosphere have shown that this is not so: immediately above the tropopause the temperature is almost constant, and then begins to increase. Strong horizontal winds blow in the stratosphere without forming turbulence. The air in the stratosphere is very dry and therefore clouds are rare. So-called nacreous clouds are formed.

The stratosphere is very important for life on Earth, as it is in this layer that there is a small amount of ozone, which absorbs strong ultraviolet radiation that is harmful to life. By absorbing ultraviolet radiation, ozone heats the stratosphere.

Stratosphere

Above the troposphere to an altitude of 50-55 km lies the stratosphere, characterized by the fact that the temperature in it, on average, increases with height. The transition layer between the troposphere and stratosphere (1-2 km thick) is called the tropopause.

Above were data on the temperature at the upper boundary of the troposphere. These temperatures are also typical for the lower stratosphere. Thus, the air temperature in the lower stratosphere above the equator is always very low; Moreover, in summer it is much lower than above the pole.

The lower stratosphere is more or less isothermal. But, starting from an altitude of about 25 km, the temperature in the stratosphere quickly increases with altitude, reaching maximum positive values at an altitude of about 50 km (from +10 to +30°). Due to the increase in temperature with altitude, turbulence in the stratosphere is low.

There is negligible water vapor in the stratosphere. However, at altitudes of 20-25 km, very thin, so-called nacreous clouds are sometimes observed in high latitudes. During the day they are not visible, but at night they appear to glow, as they are illuminated by the sun below the horizon. These clouds are made up of supercooled water droplets. The stratosphere is also characterized by the fact that it mainly contains atmospheric ozone, as mentioned above

Mesosphere

Above the stratosphere lies the mesosphere layer, up to approximately 80 km. Here the temperature drops with altitude to several tens of degrees below zero. Due to the rapid drop in temperature with height, turbulence is highly developed in the mesosphere. At altitudes close to the upper boundary of the mesosphere (75-90 km), another special kind of clouds are observed, also illuminated by the sun at night, the so-called noctilucent ones. They are most likely composed of ice crystals.

At the upper boundary of the mesosphere, air pressure is 200 times less than at the earth's surface. Thus, in the troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere together, up to an altitude of 80 km, lies more than 99.5% of the total mass of the atmosphere. The overlying layers account for a negligible amount of air

At an altitude of about 50 km above the Earth, the temperature begins to fall again, marking the upper limit of the stratosphere and the beginning of the next layer, the mesosphere. The mesosphere has the coldest temperature in the atmosphere: from -2 to -138 degrees Celsius. The highest clouds are also located here: in clear weather they can be seen at sunset. They are called noctilucent (glowing at night).

Thermosphere

The upper part of the atmosphere, above the mesosphere, is characterized by very high temperatures and is therefore called the thermosphere. However, two parts are distinguished in it: the ionosphere, extending from the mesosphere to altitudes of the order of a thousand kilometers, and the outer part lying above it - the exosphere, which turns into the earth's corona.

The air in the ionosphere is extremely rarefied. We have already indicated that at altitudes of 300-750 km its average density is about 10-8-10-10 g/m3. But even with such a low density, each cubic centimeter of air at an altitude of 300 km still contains about one billion (109) molecules or atoms, and at an altitude of 600 km - over 10 million (107). This is several orders of magnitude greater than the content of gases in interplanetary space.

The ionosphere, as the name itself says, is characterized by a very strong degree of ionization of the air - the ion content here is many times greater than in the underlying layers, despite the strong general rarefaction of the air. These ions are mainly charged oxygen atoms, charged nitric oxide molecules, and free electrons. Their content at altitudes of 100-400 km is about 1015-106 per cubic centimeter.

Several layers, or regions, with maximum ionization are distinguished in the ionosphere, especially at altitudes of 100-120 km and 200-400 km. But even in the spaces between these layers, the degree of ionization of the atmosphere remains very high. The position of the ionospheric layers and the concentration of ions in them change all the time. Sporadic collections of electrons with particularly high concentrations are called electron clouds.

The electrical conductivity of the atmosphere depends on the degree of ionization. Therefore, in the ionosphere, the electrical conductivity of air is generally 1012 times greater than that of the earth’s surface. Radio waves experience absorption, refraction and reflection in the ionosphere. Waves with a length of more than 20 m cannot pass through the ionosphere at all: they are reflected by electron layers of low concentration in the lower part of the ionosphere (at altitudes of 70-80 km). Medium and short waves are reflected by the overlying ionospheric layers.

It is due to reflection from the ionosphere that long-distance communication on short waves is possible. Multiple reflections from the ionosphere and the earth's surface allow short waves to travel in a zigzag manner over long distances, bending around the surface Globe. Since the position and concentration of ionospheric layers are constantly changing, the conditions for absorption, reflection and propagation of radio waves also change. Therefore, for reliable radio communications, continuous study of the state of the ionosphere is necessary. Observations of the propagation of radio waves are precisely the means for such research.

In the ionosphere, auroras and the glow of the night sky, which is close in nature to them in nature, are observed - constant luminescence of atmospheric air, as well as sharp fluctuations in the magnetic field - ionospheric magnetic storms.

Ionization in the ionosphere owes its existence to the action of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Its absorption by molecules of atmospheric gases leads to the formation of charged atoms and free electrons, as discussed above. Magnetic field fluctuations in the ionosphere and auroras depend on fluctuations in solar activity. Changes in solar activity are associated with changes in the flow of corpuscular radiation coming from the Sun into the earth's atmosphere. Namely, corpuscular radiation is of primary importance for these ionospheric phenomena.

The temperature in the ionosphere increases with altitude to very high values. At altitudes of about 800 km it reaches 1000°.

Talking about high temperatures ionosphere, mean that particles of atmospheric gases move there at very high speeds. However, the air density in the ionosphere is so low that a body located in the ionosphere, for example a flying satellite, will not be heated by heat exchange with the air. Temperature the satellite will depend on its direct absorption of solar radiation and on the release of its own radiation into the surrounding space. The thermosphere is located above the mesosphere at an altitude of 90 to 500 km above the Earth's surface. Gas molecules here are highly scattered and absorb X-rays and short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation. Because of this, temperatures can reach 1000 degrees Celsius.

The thermosphere basically corresponds to the ionosphere, where ionized gas reflects radio waves back to Earth, a phenomenon that makes radio communications possible.

Exosphere

Above 800-1000 km, the atmosphere passes into the exosphere and gradually into interplanetary space. The speeds of movement of gas particles, especially light ones, are very high here, and due to the extreme rarefaction of the air at these altitudes, the particles can fly around the Earth in elliptical orbits without colliding with each other. Individual particles can have speeds sufficient to overcome gravity. For uncharged particles, the critical speed will be 11.2 km/sec. Such especially fast particles can, moving along hyperbolic trajectories, fly out of the atmosphere into outer space, “escape”, and dissipate. Therefore, the exosphere is also called the scattering sphere.

Mostly hydrogen atoms, which are the dominant gas in the highest layers of the exosphere, escape.

Recently it was assumed that the exosphere, and with it the Earth’s atmosphere in general, ends at altitudes of about 2000-3000 km. But from observations by rockets and satellites, it appears that hydrogen escaping from the exosphere forms what is called the Earth's corona around the Earth, extending to more than 20,000 km. Of course, the density of gas in the earth's corona is negligible. For every cubic centimeter there are on average only about a thousand particles. But in interplanetary space the concentration of particles (mainly protons and electrons) is at least ten times less.

With the help of satellites and geophysical rockets, the existence in the upper part of the atmosphere and in near-Earth space of the Earth's radiation belt, starting at an altitude of several hundred kilometers and extending tens of thousands of kilometers from the earth's surface, has been established. This belt consists of electrically charged particles - protons and electrons, captured magnetic field Earth and moving at very high speeds. Their energy is on the order of hundreds of thousands of electron volts. The radiation belt constantly loses particles in the earth's atmosphere and is replenished by flows of solar corpuscular radiation.

atmosphere temperature stratosphere troposphere