In the middle of the past millennia, Europe shook the events that changed all the course of history. Serious changes in the medieval Pax Christiana indices - the "Christian world" - were touched upon not only the way of life of people, but also the image of God. In the change of these, another human type was born, the understanding of the prescription of the person and the meaning of his life was changed. The new time began, "our time" for generations that created modern society with its market economy, technician, democracy, a new faith - to progress and science, freedom and mind. The stronghold of this faith was Protestantism, born in 95 Theses of Dr. Martin Luther.
Chronology of the Epoch of Reformation
November 10, 1483 - Martin Luther was born in Iceleben (Saxony)
January 1, 1484 - Ulrich Zwingley was born in Wildhaus
1505 year - Luther takes a tonsure in the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt
July 10, 1509 - Jean Calvin was born in Nuayone (Picardius)
1512 year - Luther visits Rome; Begins to lecture on the Bible in Wittenberg
1515 year - Publication of "letters of dark people", ridiculeting Cologne Dominicans
October 31, 1517 - Luther hangs his "95 theses" on the door of the church in Wittenberg
1519 year - Zwingli begins public sermons
1519 year - Luther's ideas are convicted in Cologne and Universities
1520 year - The ideas of Luther are condemned at the University of Paris. Papal Bulla Exsurge Domine threatens Luther with broadcast. He makes three reforming treatises and enlightens the papal bull
1521 year - Philip Melanchton publishes the first edition of Loci Communes ("General"), which is destined to become a "standard" for theological works of the Lutheran direction. Wormsky Reichstag. Luther is outlawed out of law, Friedrich Wise gives him asylum in Wartburg
1522 year - Unrest in Wittenberg. Return Luther. Publication of the German translation of the New Testament
1524 - the beginning of the peasant war in Germany
1525 year - Publication "Comment on True and False Religion" Zwingli. Luther marries the former nun Catharina Bohr
1528 year - Bern takes Zwinglyan Reformation, Mass is canceled
1531 year - Northelets princes are based on Schmalkalden League in defense of Protestantism. In the battle of Cappel dies zwingli
1534 year - established "Society of Jesus" - Order of Jesuit. Start of counter-formation
1539 year - published the first volume of the total collection of Luther's writings February 18
1546 - Luther died
1555 year - The Augsburg world enshrines the territorial-religious division of the Sacred Roman Empire between Protestants and Catholics
The priest from Wittenberg stated the participants of the Imperial Reichstag in Worms: "If only Scripture and a simple mind will not kill me nasty, I do not accept the authorities of the Paw and the Church Cathedral, because they contradict each other, my conscience is in captivity only in the Word of God. I can't and I will not unlearn anything from anything, because it is equally incorrect to go against my own conscience. Help me God. Amen". He left the meeting, after the door, vomiting: "I'm the end." Fortunately, Luther became mistaken, but - tactically: the stubborn was not taken into custody directly at the exit only because he was pre-(and rashly, from the point of view of the "judges"), he was issued an imperial "letter of safe passage" - the so-called schutzbrief. It guaranteed the bearer 21 day of complete immunity from persecution throughout the territory of separated Germany. On April 25, 1521, Dr. Luther went home to Wittenberg.
But, of course, the "winnings" did not solve anything for the rebar, especially since immediately after the events in Worms Carl V, the emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire, released a decree declaring him outlaw: Luther had the right to kill anyone who wishes without fear Legal retribution. Event participants for several weeks stopped waiting: what will still be with a stubborn after the "Wormsky Scandal"? .. There was a completely unforeseen: intervened "Lyhy people." On the way "to the place of permanent residence" of the Opt Monk ... kidnapped. The satellites were seen as unknown riders in masks beat him from the procession and took the hills behind the near-day ridge. Luther disappeared. But soon in the castle of Wartburg, who belonged to the electro (Kurfürthur), the Saxon Friedrich III, appeared and began to gradually figure out a black beard of a certain Junker ("Young Nobleman") Yorg. He walked with a man's book, wrote something for all day. The reformation for a while was frozen only in order to turn on, accelerating and gaining momentum, armed with the transfer of the Gospels into German, - it was above him who worked the leader of Protestants in Wartburg. In itself, it was a challenge: another year before the end of the XII century, Dad Innocent III for the fresh trails of Qatari and Waldensian Yerezi banned "unauthorized" writing transfers other than Latin Vulgate, compiled by the Holy Jerome in 382-405.
The strikingly rapid success of the Luther and the Reformation is considerably due to economic reasons: strict charges in favor of Roman Kuria, for which most European countries have complained to no avail. The requirements of the church reform in Capite et in membris ("in relation to the head and members") sounded louder: Roman dads in 1309 were in captivity of Philip IV in French Avignon. It happened because the secular and spiritual authorities did not share influence and prerogatives. The so-called "Great Western Schism" was followed by a prison - a split between Avignon and Roman pontiffs. Cryism began in 1378 and ended only at the Konstantsky Cathedral (1414-1418), where reforms were promised, but they immediately forgot them, as soon as Rome strengthened his power. And there came the turn and "Renaissance Pap" of the XV century, which earthly pleasures were not alien to (as they do not remember Alexander VI - Rodrigo Bordja and Lion X - Giovanni Medici). The priests sometimes did not differ in the strength of the spirit, and the monasticism in that epoch came to a noticeable decline.And the medieval theology has rapidly lost rapidly, while the criticism of religion led to the breakdown of the entire medieval world of ideas and beliefs. Reformation helped and the fact that a new church, ready to recognize full control from the secular authorities, received support for governments, smoothly turned religious problems to national and political, consolidating them with law or force - as in England, Zurich, Geneva
Plato with his teaching about ideas as functioning logical concepts was again shifted by Aristotle, whose ideas Thomas Aquinas and representatives of the scholastic tradition were connected with the revelations of the Holy Scriptures. Under these conditions, the riot against Rome's religious domination was simply obliged to be crowned with success.
Monument to the Swiss Fathers of Reformation, erected in Venoshev in 1917
Contemporaries, but not comrades 
The second after Wittenberg the center of the Reformation became Zurich, where the rules of the Swiss church and politician, the Son of the Rustic Street and the educated humanist Ulrich Zwingley (1484-1531). His ideas differed in many ways from Lutherovoy in the radical side (especially on the need for the need for church service at all), but the goals of Lutheran and Zwinglyan initially coincided. The preacher who expressed the interests of Zurich burghers quickly fastened in the municipal battles and literally faced the city magistrate, who has released a number of anti-gram acts under his dictation to his dictation and forbade Catholic worship at the end.
The French-speaking cantons of the country, headed in Geneva Jean Calvin (1509-1564), were not lagged behind (1509-1564) - at first the modest representative of the French migrants community. Calvinism was distinguished by even more stringent forms of the doctrine regulating the entire home and social life of a citizen. It is literally about the full battle of religious practices with a daily existence. The word Matra was considered in the Geneva of the 1540s the truth in the last instance, no discrepancies or objections were allowed. The priests were sent, and the laymen forced to visit new challenges at home.
Who are you, Western Christians?
When, in 1517, a Catholic monk from Thuringia, Martin Luther, who was distinguished by the extreme religious zeal, spoke for the first time. However, the private question raised by him unexpectedly visited people of various estates. And very soon the logic of the struggle led the thinker to rupture with the papacy. Papal Bulla Exsurge Domine dated June 15, 1520 acknowledged 41 out of 95 lather theses "Heretical". The next Bullah, from January 3, 1521, provided him with 60 days to renounce misconceptions - under the threat of excommunication from the church and burning all previously published works. Instead, Wittenberg monk against the overall expectation does not blink with the eye declared Dad Antichrist: After all, the one who claims to the only possible interpretation of Scripture and refuses any reforms, goes against God. As a result of the conflict, the "Exchange of Audate" followed, then promised Rome overheating heretic. So, in 1520, the lot was thrown. Every Western Christian was now to decide with whom he, with reformers or "traditionalists"?
It was then that the division of the Christian era at the "darkness of the Middle Ages" and the "Light of the New Time" was born today, and it was in connection with faith in the proximity of the onset of a fundamentally different era. The rod of this faith, driving the power of this first of the Great European Revolutions, was a mighty impulse to universal "reorganization" of life. And Renaissance Humanists, like Bokcchcho or Rabel, and the religious reformers-Lutherans seemed that after the centuries of barbarism and superstition, it was finally reborn. The fact that the first was looking for samples to imitate in synthesis with classical antiquity, and the second - only in the apostolic era. But the results of their efforts came far beyond the desired initially: the church (in any case, in Northern Europe) at all lost practical control over the life of society, in a significant part of Western countries, a new bourgeois culture was developed, which no one had dreamed of and no one foreshadowed it . Religion has become intellectual criticism and political manipulations. In the center of the Old World, the unprecedented scale of the thirty-year-old "War of Ver" (1618-1648) was broken up - the first conflict, one way or another, who affected almost all European countries, and therefore, most of the Okumen, known at Luther. The war has become a logical completion of the split of Europe caused by the Reformation."Mr. over all things"
Wittenberg doctor of theology proclaimed: the main issue of being is the question of the relationship of faith and "good deeds". And he himself answered unequivocally: only the first-honor of God alone is essential for Protestants; As for good deeds, they, they say, only faith and are generated. Pope, according to reformers (at first, when they still recognized it), very limited. The forgiveness of guilt is the prerogative of the Lord alone, and therefore selling "forms of scape of sins" for the sake of salvation of the soul - the perversion of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Divine Mercy. Repentant for a Christian is the deepest experience: it is not limited to the appropriate sacrament, but should turn all his life.
The Father of the Reformation opposed the claims of the Roman throne to the domination of secular life (there was a conviction that the spiritual power of a priori is above secular). He demanded independence for the German Church, the abolition of celibacy (vytule of celibacy) for priests, recognition as the sacraments of only two (established by Jesus themselves) - baptism and communion. In general, indigenous doctrine changes were called to ensure return to the times of the apostolic sermon. On the thoughts of Luther, a Christian is "free Mr. Over all things and is not subordinate to anyone" in cases where it comes to his faith, about the "inland man", but "the slave ready for serving all things and is subordinated to everyone," when it comes On the external manifestations of his life. The main principle is "Almost Christ" in opposition to the host of "official intermediaries" between man and God. Not prescribed by the Church establishments, and the "only grace" of the Lord can be achieved by the salvation of the soul.
Naturally, such arguments inevitably led to the denial of infrequentness of Ponti and Councils. In Rome, and in the bishops of German itself, all this could not not cause rejection. Ahead of believers were waiting for a century of disagreement and deadly hatred. Only in the twentieth century Catholics and Protestants will again try to move towards each other. In the meantime ... until the new teaching is typing followers. First of all, in Germany.
Germany has become the place of originating the Reformation, and its main center, of course, is not by chance, although in a certain sense, this movement anticipated French early-conductive heresies and the activities of Yana Gus (1371-1415) in the Czech Republic. The fact is that by the first quarter of the XVI century, the secular power of Rome is already pretty tired of even a large baron, which, by "class logic", was not expensive to maintain fundamental social changes.
German life between all the stronger "became more complicated." In Wittenberg (and this only at two thousand permanent and poor inhabitants) was instituted in 1502 - a very close to the Prince of Castle - the University (it was in him, according to Shakespeare, a prince Hamlet was studied). Dr. Martin himself, in turn, served as the priest of the Castle Church, and the university professor, and owned the feudal fortress that the Saxon domain Friedrich Wise, who subsequently saved the father of the reformation from death after Worms.
What were the thoughts of the revolution of European peace then? On the slope of years, having in mind your own experience, he wrote: "Despair makes a monk." Most likely, this despair did not associate with any specific tragic events, but was considered a purely existential character. At the turn of the XV-Khvi centuries, all Burgertism suffered from the fact that we would call social uncertainty today, despondency and apatine. In the collective consciousness of the era, the premonition of a close end of the world. The favorite song of that pore-crying "among life in death is gaining" Notker Zaiki. Favorite engraving, decorated with walls of houses and workshops, - Durer "four riders" from the "Apocalypse" series, dressed in the costumes of "feudal predators" - emperor, dads, bishop and knight. In general, the spiritual atmosphere of predeformation time The famous Dutch cultureologist Johan Hasing is characterized as follows: "Whether the sides of the then cultural heritage we touched - be it chronicle or poetry, sermons or even a different kind of diplomas, - the same impression of endless sadness remains everywhere. It may seem like this era was incomparably unhappy and only visited discord, mortal hatred, envy, rudeness and poverty ... The call of Memento Mori (remember the death) permeed all its cash existence. "Meanwhile, on this gloomy background, the economic life of the country in the era of youth Luther was suddenly published. German fairs, commercial offices and banks have become famous for the whole of Europe, the grip and skill of German deniesants entered the saying. Naturally, according to universal laws of the economy, such development was accompanied by a high-speed decomposition of old, patriarchal business methods. From here - the growth of direct contradictions, violence on the roads and in the villages, theft, sales of princes and judges, in general, everything that is accepted by the decline of morals. From here - passionate condemnation by Nizami "Mamon's ministry", under which they intended primarily feudal greed. The rich slowly citizens for obvious reasons did not fully accepted such an uncompromising condemnation of the thirst for profit, but were against the unreasonable compassion of the nobles. Their straitchy, cooking drunkenness and arbitrariness led to respectable bourgeois in despair. "Our Lord," Luther will say in 1525, "Will a Guldenna see a grain and straw and straw", and therefore are made "merciless, like Landscinds, and cunning like a usurist."
So, the emerging German "middle class" unconsciously eased the moral elevation of honest private entrepreneurship, the confidence that it is no less worthy than military or the official service that God favors to the leaning and conscientious delta, and condemns only devoid of moral restrictions. But what to do if such conclusions are impossible in the framework of the Catholic Canon? After all, the medieval worldview put on trade and entrepreneurship the indelible seal of sin. Luther endured this conflict and found the means of his permission.
After the "abduction" of Wittenberg Buntar, the support of new ideas was kept in his homeland, and colleagues for the university were closed before the imperial princes. After all, the monk, serving from the church and his own rejected monastic vows (1525), could not participate in the public theological disputes with Catholics, and then he was extremely needed by his comrades. At the time of the lack of a teacher, this obligation took upon himself his associate - the aologist-humanist and systematics of Lutheranism Philip Melanchton. And Melanchton, and even more "extremist" confused Andreas Carlstadt performed for change. What they performed - they carried out them! Parishioners even before the return of the Luther began to be tested not only by bread, but also wine - unlike Catholics, which only a priest was applied to the cup. The outcome of the monks from the monasteries began, the priests were married. Father reforms at one time even took a heaven - do they have the right to this? It turned out, it seems to be ...
About the convenience of the harsh faithProtestantism adherents did not differ in particular intelligibility in the methods of its distribution. How did they act? Loudly, sometimes hysterically accused Catholics in real and imaginary sins. Net scored, not particularly worrying about creating. Pick up the souls of people who were ready to support everything that promised changes, and - in any case, at first did not offer them anything intelligible, except for refusing to tradition. Well "walked" hatred for Rome and Cardinals, heated by endless complaints about the disgrace of priests. Such art preparation was very helped by the success of the Reformation. The most important religious principles were sent to the dump of history together with abuse.
In addition, innovators successfully used conflicts that arose everywhere between secular and spiritual persons, between the clearance and parishioners, between the bishops and cities, between the monasteries and princes. Laying the clergy of influence on the ordinary life of society, reformers supported the feudalists and cities in the desire to finally complete the solar disputes in their favor. Absolutely new, liberated from political claims, the organization of believers came here as it is impossible by the way. The reformed priesthood owned only the rights that civil authorities complained. The reformed National Church of the North German lands entered the complete submission of civil rulers, and the innovators of faith entrusted themselves could no longer leave this "service", even if they wanted.
Finally, the reformers successfully appealed and for purely human emotions, shower movements. Ideas that promoted followers of Luther: Freedom of thought, the right of everyone to establish faith only on the Bible - were extremely attractive. Cancellation of the mechanisms designed to keep the sinful human nature in the ultrasound (confession, dopyia, post, abstinence and vows), attracted those who are tired of unnecessarily shovel. In fact, why pacify the flesh when it's enough just to believe and sing the hymns in your native language! The war against church orders, celibacy and monastic abstinence - the practitioner of an elevated life in Christianity - attracted to the reformation of those who preferred the "non-night faith." The confiscation of the property of monasteries was very helpful: it was used for the material support of former monks and monasters, priests, "Rasp." There were endless pamphleters who played on the lowest feelings. Pope, Roman smoke, generally remained in the direction of Catholicism in the lands of the winning reformation was subjected to ridicule, and the language of the doctrine - distortion and mockery. All this found, as they said before, "live response in the masses."
"Whose land, that faith"
Oddly enough, many bishops initially reacted to the reform settings indifferently, and this gave the leaders of Protestants Time to turn around. Even much later, a number of fathers of the church, remaining, of course, loyal to their beliefs, did not find the forces and desire to answer the challenge of the heretics to the challenge of "heretics", not much later than the publication of Wittenberg theses. The same can be said about the parish priests, many of whom were also quite ignorant and apatichene, and this straightenly contrasted with the zeal of new preachers. The latter easily found a common language with "rude souls", alien written words and favorable to their own weaknesses.
Many new orders set up a primitive feeling of collectivism: a cup for communion accepted by all Congregation, chants - became collective. And reading from the Bible, and the rejection of the basic difference between the clearance and the laity? All could be "like everything." This is also done by all the same attractive doctrine of excuses by one faith (whatever good deeds), denial of freedom of will, justifying moral "flaws", and an universal priesthood, which seemed directly provided to each share of "priests" and administrative and church functions.
And, finally, one of the main driving forces of the Reformation was a direct violence of authorities interested in the redistribution of property. The priests persistent in the Catholicism were sent out of Protestant regions and replaced by adherents of the new doctrine, the parishioners were forced to attend their services. It came to the fact that in many places of people and whole parishes stopped allowing in the church: it was especially famous for such a decisiveness of Calvinist Geneva, where they could also burn, as, for example, it happened in 1553 with the Spanish Mighel Murvetian doctor, an attached false teacher and heretic, denying the doctrine of the Trinity. The history of the Reformation shows that civil institutions were one of the main factors of distributing it everywhere: not religious, but dynastic, political and social factors often turned out to be decisive. Faith received according to the principle of "Cuius Regio, Eius Religio" - "Whose land, that faith"
The fire of the Reformation quickly covered the whole Europe. It is known that any ideas and slogans instantly look at those who are beneficial to those or another: "There is a merchant for every product." For example, in France on the 20s and 30s of the XVI century, among the rich citizens and commoners, Lutheranism and Anabaptism (the radical reformation flow, who spent the secondary, conscious baptism in adulthood, who denied the church hierarchy, the sacraments and not allowed his adepts to pay taxes or serve as Forces) became very popular. "Pulled out" and Calvinism with its harsh political rhetoric, when the time of the uncompromising struggle of the separatist feudalists came with the French absolutism with the force, he relied on traditional Catholicism. The cruel node of these contradictions described in many well-known literary writings was partly blurred only by the long knives of the Wartholomewn Night in Paris (August 24, 1572), which became the culmination of the Huggenic wars and after 30 years "dictated" to the former Protestant Heinrich IV Navarre phrase about that "Paris stands Massa."In the meantime, from the second decade of the XVI century, that is, from the very beginning of the Reformation, in her homeland centrifugal trends, successfully overcome in France, won. In the Black Forest, and soon covered the whole south-western and middle Germany the peasant war. From the circles close to the radical religious and rebel leader Thomas Muencere, the so-called "article letter" (ArtikelBrief), full of slogans: the freedom "poor and ordinary people" - from any authorities and gentlemen! Relieve life on the principles of "common benefits" and "divine law"! .. It is not surprising that the Burgers darted into the opposite direction from the rebels - in the arms of the "specific" princes and childbirth, which in turn would be readily assigned to themselves - on the wave of Lutheran propaganda - Alienated ownership of the church. As a result, the movement of the peasants with general efforts managed to suppress, but the Augsburg World, concluded between the Baronov Protestants and Baronam Catholic in 1555, gave only a short respite: the beginning of the XVII century brought the Germans already mentioned thirty-year-old war. From her, the fatherland Martin Luther has already been completely exhausted: the Sacred Roman Empire has fallen the leading political positions on the continent.
From Calvinists to quackers
As you know, any social protest in the Middle Ages has enjoyed a religious form. But these these ended: the reformation has become the last similar movement. The era of enlightenment, imbued with the spirit of skepticism, was interested in religion only from the point of view, with which it was possible to debunk. However, some purely "reform" values \u200b\u200bof the West prevented forever: the importance of the word in opposition was established in the cult, and the sermon took the place of liturgy in the mind.
The Roman church from the very beginning resisted against the anticipation of trees. After thirty years, from the moment of promulgation of theses of Luther, the Triedent Cathedral condemned his ideas. And the great Roman pontiffs Pavel III, Pei V and Sikst V quickly found a common language with Catholic monarchs, first of all with Philip II Spanish, with Bavarian Dukes and Emperor Ferdinand II. Inquisition was strengthened (in 1542, its sacred office appeared in Rome), the index of prohibited books was compiled. The replacement of the disorganized German monastic orders were new - the Order of Capuchins (1525) and Jesuit (1534). Catholicism survived. However, despite the measures taken, the ideas of Luther reached even the main citades of Catholicism - Spain and Italy. It was believed, for example, the Spanish Protestants are the most refined. However, this intelligent flow curled to the 1560s.
In the meantime, in places where Protestantism was seriously entrenched, his theoretical base was developed - Mennonites came (including Huguenots) - supporters of the "revolutionary" Anabaptist Mento Simons (died in 1561). Then the turn of the Methodist, Quaker, Pentecostal and other currents that grew out of the ideas of Rivilevism is "religious rebirth". The latter appeared to return not only to the ideals of early Christianity, but also ... to "clean", initial reformation.
Conditioners of Protestantism in the bourgeois age and, if we talk geopolitically, in America, the Netherlands and England became the most developed economically European countries of the XVI century. Calvinism slogans were written on the banners of the Dutch Liberation War (1566-1609), supported by the bourgeoisie and nobility, opposed Spain, peasants and urban poor. England of the XVI century, once enhancing the confrontation with Rome, also no longer left it. In accordance with the Act of 1534, the supremacy (supremacy), the king became the head of the Anglican Church. The English Reformation was "descended from above" and therefore had its own characteristics: retained Catholic ritual, bishopath, church possessions ... This provision led to the Luchavi philosophical harness: all attempts to withstand the "gears" of English absolutism implied the fight against official religion. As a result, she soon lost its attractiveness for independently thinking people, and those rushed into the embrace of local calvinism - puritans and his new-fashioned varieties - Presbyterianism and Leveler. The turbulent events of the English revolution followed, however, when the "Bunlet" lining under Calvinism was dried, only the "old kind" National Church survived.
But on the new, American shores, the doctrine of reformers found fertile soil. It was in the United States that the branches of a young religion bloom in the United States: Congregationalism ("Invested" in American science, the foundation of Harvard), Quake Operation, Baptism, Methodism (his "religious commivals" delivered religion directly to the houses of the parishioners). And there have been new: Adventism, Mormontism, Universalism, Unitarianism ... It was Protestantism that I wrote a classic German philosophy, and it was influenced by Russia with His Wester and Neokantians - no wonder the Modern philosopher Voicoker tied in his study of the singer "Mysterious Russian Soul" Dostoevsky with "Restless Star Immanuel "in the book" Kant and Dostoevsky ".
Protestant countries are economically most developed - stable democratic regimes are supported by this mobile and living version of Christianity. Lutheran Rosa launched roots.
Victor Garaja, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences
Portrait of Martin Luther. Luka Artist Cranes Senior, 1525
Ninety-five theses immediately made Luther's name unusually popular in Germany. Until 1517, he was known only in a closer circle of his Wittenberg admirers, to whom the Kurfürst himself belonged, his sovereign, and this fame was based solely on his successful activities of the preacher. Luther possessed a happy gift of convictions, and the sincerity of his appeals to the listeners, the guild, with some kind of religious doctrine, the persuasiveness of his arguments attracted them to his preaching always a big crowd, closely close to his department and hearing him with tense attention. Ninety-five theses appeared just at the time when they had not yet managed to stick to the public arousal, produced by the humanistic struggle with Cologne theologians and their supporters, when the society was still under the impression of the "letters of dark people." In the formed circles, they began to follow the controversy between Luther and his opponents with great interest. Luther was also supporters who took on his defense. Such was, for example, Wittenbergsky, professor, a man of scholastic education, Carlstadt, who dispedicted with Ecco, in Leipzig; This was the Humanist Philip Melanchton (actually Schwancend), a relative and student Reichlin, subsequently the Assistant Luther. The Leipzig Dispute immediately raised the Luther to a large altitude in public opinion, and Papal Bulla 1520 and the passionate appeals of the Luther himself, released in the same year, made him a living embodiment of the national and religious opposition of Rome. These years are wonderful that the rapprochement between the future reformer happened, on the one hand, and humanists and politicians on the other, the convergence of a temporary, who did not have durable soil, but a very characteristic for the mood, who worried Germany before the very beginning of the revolutionary movement 1522- 1525 In this respect, the behavior of Ulrich von Gutten, who had seen first in Wittenberg disputes, who had seen in Wittenberg disputes, and had the hope that the monks in a mutual enmity would destroy each other. The courage, with Kind Luther spoke out against the papacy, attracted to the side of Ulrich von Gutten. We have already mentioned its pamphlet 1520-1521, about his "complaint and admission against the exorbitant and non-Christian authorities of the Roman Pope." "Before, he says in this pamphlet - I wrote in Latin, which is not any familiar; Now I appeal to the Fatherland, to the German nation in her language - to dictate for these cases "(Zu Bringen Diesen Dingen Rach), like Luther, who applied to the emperor and the Christian nobility of the German nation, and Gutten calls to the sovereigns and ruling classes:" I hope He says, it will make many knights, many graphs and nobles and many citizens, also too much by these affairs in their cities so that my call is left unanswered. Forward, God is with us! Who wants to stay behind in this case? I dared - this is my slogan! " In another pamphlet ("excuse"), he wrote that he had always applied to the emperor and the states with the admission The spiritual persons will reach the extreme, the rude crowd and meaningless black (Gemeiner Hauf und Das Unsinnige Volk) will rise and without meaning will crush everything. Subsequently, Guutten himself invited this crowd and this people to action, but while he stood at the same point of view as Luther. He, too, in the message to the German nobility, said that when reforms demand secular sovereigns, the church is responsible, as if secular power should not be interpreted in church affairs - and he expressed a desire for Karl V to take up reform. Only the unsuccessful outcome of the Worshi Sejm made Gutten abandon the hope of holding a reform from above. In the same winter, 1520-1521, Gutetten wrote Latin dialogue "Bulla and Bullowing", in which dramatically depicts the struggle of Bully with freedom, wound into the mouth of the last words: "To the rescue, fellow citizens! Protect oppressed freedom! Does no one dare to enhance me? Is there really no one truly free free, who seeks to good, no one who loving the right and justice, hate deception and a crime? " And Gutetten adds that "whose one would have been this cry, he must come into, since he hears a call. I look, he continues, what is being done there. I see, it is about freedom. Need to run. What is here? Who is custom? Freedom! Freedom oppress, Gutten! This is me, I call! " In two other dialogues ("Wontrollers"), Gutten displays - in one - Luther, in another - his friend Zikkingen, talking to people who, although they blame the abuse of the Roman Church, but even more rebelling the uprising against it. The interlocutor indicates Zikekingen that all the risen against the church ended badly. "And Cech Zhizhi? The knight asks. He left behind the glory that he freed his fatherland from Yega, kicked out of all the Bohemia of unworthy creatures, lazy pops and useless monks, their property returned to the heirs of the sacrifices, part of the public and so on. " On the Penagirik, the interlocutor notes that Zikkingen, apparently, does not mind to imitate a alie, "and receives in response that," of course, not mind, if good is not able to speak. " This pamphlet was written when the course of affairs in the Wormsian Sejm did not inspire a special confidence in the impatient Gutten. During this Seima, who opened on January 28, 1521, Gutten was especially worried, publishing, eg, two more inventives against the former papal legates. Luther began to confuse the behavior of his defender, and he wrote to his friend's bedtown, a confessor and senior secretary of Friedrich Wise (formerly one of the historians of the Reformation): "You see what Guutten seeks, but I don't want the Gospel to defend violence and murder; In this sense, I wrote to him. In the word, the world was defeated, the word was preserved by the Church, she will restore the word. " Luther was also very unpleasant when the end of the Seimas in Worms was the appealing of the four hundred knights, which joined the Luther. He said that the trick of his enemies acts here, who wanted to destroy him, attributing rebel connections to him.
It took less than two months after the burning of Bully, when she gathered in Worms, at which a new emperor was present for the first time. The Lion X was, as it was at the same time, against the election of Karl V, and in the spring of 1520, the Emperor Manuel's attorney wrote to him: "Your Majesty must go to Germany and there to have some favorableness to someone Martin Luther, which is in the Saxon courtyard and its subject Serious inspires the concerns of Roman curia. " But later, as already mentioned, there was a deal between Karl V, and the dope took place a deal: Lev X was to help the emperor vs. France, Karl necessarily contribute to the destruction of heresy in Germany. Meanwhile, the struggle of Luther with Pares continued, and the Lion X confirmed the curse of the bold monk with the new Bullos, which the latter published with his comments that can serve as a sample of his controversy. "Lion, Bishop, read Bulla (Bishop, like a wolf, is a shepherd, because the bishop should talk under the law of salvation, and not to explore the curses), the slaves of the slaves of God (in the evening, when we are drunk, and in the morning we are not looking at" Mr. of All Lord ") . Roman bishops, our predecessors, had a custom on this holiday (pure Thursday) to use justice weapons (which, in your opinion - excommunication and anathema, and on the apostle Pavlu - patience, meekness and mercy). On the right and obligations of the apostolic and to maintain the purity of the Christian faith (i.e., the secular possessions of the Pope) and the unity of it, consisting in the union of members with the crying of Christ and his governor (little of one of Christ - the other is still needed) to preserve the Holy Communication of the faithful We follow the ancient custom and we take and curse in the name of the Almighty God of Father (about which it is said: God did not send His Son into the world, in order to judge the world) and the Son, and the Holy Spirit and on the power of the Apostles Peter and Paul and our own (and I Here, too, says the wolf devouring, as if the power of God is too weak without him). We curse all heretics (for they wanted to possess St. Scripture and demanded that the dad was abstained and preached by the Word of God) ... And Martin Luther, recently convicted by us for such a heresy, and all his adherents and everyone whoever they who will give him any location (thank you, the kind high priest, for the fact that you condemn me with all these Christians; For me, this is the honor that my name is proclaimed in Rome on the holiday so solemnly and now bypasses the whole world with the name of all of these humble confessors of Christ). "
Emperor Karl V in youth. Artist Bernard Wang Orley, 1519-1520
When Luther was drafted by the young emperor and the ranks of the empire on the Worshi Sejm, many supporters of the future reformer advised him to limit the opposition against the secular power of the Pope, without touching religion, and thought Luther will renounce his opinions. But Luther responded as follows with a gentleman, who heard with him, on behalf of Charles and Friedrich the Wise talks about him to renounce his "Babylonian captivity of the Church": "Expect everything from me, but not escape and not renunciation. I am not escape and not refund from my essay and from my teaching, which I will admit until the last day, although I am sure that the dogs do not calm down, until they do not leave me. " When Luther went to Worms, then solemn meetings were arranged on the road: people gathered, and Luther preached. Friends, fearing, no matter what happened to him in Worms, they advised him not to go there, but he answered: "If the fires stood on the road to Wormsu, and their fire came to the sky, and if it were in Worms So many devils, how many tiles on the roofs of the houses, then I would go then. " Carlo, indeed, they proposed not to fulfill this Luther a guarantee of his literacy of the promise not to cause him evil, but Karl did not agree to it.
The time of the Worshi Sejm was the most brilliant moment in the life of Luther. He was still the founder of a new church, and defended the right of the human person, freedom of conscience, and his true greatness on this Seima was that he was solemnly, before the face of all of the world, he stated that there was a party to the person who was not may encroach any earthly power. A lot of people came to the Sejm in the village. There were almost a pass through the streets. Luther went to the town hall, where the meetings occurred, and the soldiers had to power the crowded people. At first (April 17), Luther was embarrassed before a brilliant meeting and spoke herself. He was presented to his writings, asking whether he would recognize them for his own. Having recovered from embarrassment, he answered that he could not refuse from his writings of dogmatic content, because he didn't find anything wrong with them, and the Most Bulla Pope finds a lot of good in them; What to renounce the writings in which he rebelled against the abuse of the clergy would mean from him to betray Germany, and that finally, he cannot refuse his polemical compositions, because it would mean to provide the celebration with his enemies. Then Luther began to speak against the infallibility of the father and cathedrals, but he was interrupted by such words: "You did not answer the question made to you. You are not here in order to question what was decided by the cathedrals. You demand a direct and clear answer if you want or not to refuse? " And Luther said: "Since your light majesty and your high authorities require a simple, accurate and clear answer from me, then I will give it to you without a bitch and zadorinka (Dabo Illud Neque Dentatum, Neque Cornutum). Here he: I can't subordinate my faith or dad nor the cathedrals, for it is clear as the day that they often fell in delusion and even in contradictions with themselves. It means that if I don't kill testimonies from the Scripture or obvious arguments of the mind, if I don't condacate the same places that I led, and if my conscience would not be contacted by the Word of God, I can't and I do not want to refuse anything, for not Fits the Christian to speak against his conscience. " And then, turning to the congregation, he said: "Hier Stehe Ich. Ich Kann Nicht Anders. GOTT HELFE MIR. AMEN. " This solid response impressed the meeting, but not on the cold Charles V, which said that his "this monk would not get carried away in heresy." During the speech of Luther, loud approvals were heard. Landgraf Philip Hessian came to him later on the apartment and said: "If you think that your business is, the rest is firmly on your own." Imperial ranks and public opinion were on the side of Luther, and in mind, Karl had to let him go, giving him an order to go home. On the return route, Luther was arranged numerous ovations, and he himself wrote a note to a friend to his friend, the famous painter Luke Krahuu, in which he expressed his gaze on what happened in the Wormsky Sejm: "Your servant, kindty kum, Luke! I thought that his Majesty would gather in Worms a person fifty doctors of theology to convince himself, a monk. Not at all. Are these books? - Yes. - Do you refuse from them? - Not. - So get out. That's the whole story. " For the same time, he wrote to Karl V a letter in which he conducted the border between the obedience to God and the obedience to the sovereign. The princes, especially those located to Luther, were eagerly lit up from Worms, and no one expected any new decrees in his case, as suddenly the emperor suggested that the remaining princes written by Papal Nunzie Aleander Edict, marked by the back of the twenty time For renunciation, and in the case of his refusal, put on him opal, together with his followers, friends and patrons, his writings were rejected. May 26, this was signed by Carl. Even earlier, the patron saint of Luther Friedrich is wise, realizing that the life of the reformer was in danger, conceived him to hide him for a while. When Luther returned home, he grabbed the people of Kurfürst and took him to Vartburg. There was a rumor that Luther was kidnapped by his enemies, and in meanwhile he lived in the Wartburg Castle under the name of the Knight of George. Here he began his Bible's translation into German. This case was not at the news in Germany, as the translations of the Bible, although I gave Luterov in their advantages, existed earlier and were very common in the people. The company Luther ended in only twelve years, was nevertheless great importance for the development of the German "literary language, not to mention the meaning of it for religious reformation, since the Bible was now available to everyone in excellent translation. Here he began to translate into German and Jewish Psalms than heavily moved forward the development of liturgical lyrics. Meanwhile, religious movement, excited by the sermon and the writings of Luther, not only did not make enough, but even began to take more and more extensions. Supporters of Luther published polemical writings against his enemies; Knights were going to protect the Opposition of Rome; The cities took place demonstrations in honor of Luther; The princes themselves have already begun to understand what benefits to strengthen their power can be learned from the fight against smoke; Even some of the spiritual faces read the writings of Luther Ohne Verdruss, as the Basel bishop, and the other said even: "We are all Lutherans," pointing to this similarity of their own views with Luther's teachings. But in fact, for most Germans, the whole question was in determining the relationship between the nation to Rome, for the Luther - in the dogmas of faith, due to Luther and many of his adherents understood the case of the Reformation of Nonodynakovo. I basic in the character of the character of Luther was a kind of conservatism: he separated from the church slowly and gradually: his adherents were more decisive, and they immediately rushed with the Catholic Church. Luther stayed in Wartburg until spring for 1522, and in his absence in Wittenberg and other places there was a violent overthrowing of Catholicism, which forced him to perform by the reformation started without it.
For the history of public initiation in Germany about 1521 cm. August Baur.Deutschland In Den Jahren 1517-1525 BetrachTet Im Lichte Gleichzeitiger Anonymer und Pseudonymer Deutscher Volks- und Flugschriften. - Jord.Deutschland in der revolutionSPERIODE (1521-26). Luther supporters: Jäger.Andreas Bodenstein Von Karlstadt, - Schmidt.Melanchlon "s leben . - Hartfelder.Philipp Melanchton, Als Praeceptor Germaniae. In 1897 r. NO Case of the four hundred years anniversary Melanchton came out. about him Wilson "A,Deane(both engl). Kauffmann "aHaupt "a,SELL "A.et al. more new work (1902) about Melanchton written Ellinherfswb.CP. Kawerau.Die Versuche Melanchthon "S Zur Katholischen Kirche Zuruckzufuhren.
Hausrath.Aleander und Luther Auf Dem Reichstage Zu Worms. - Pasquier.L "Humanisme et La Réforme: Jerome Aleandre.
Founder of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Born in Eisleben (in Saxony) on November 10, 1483. He took place from the peasant class, was the son of the Rudopop and received in the family strict religious-moral education. In 1501, he entered the University of Erfurt, where, studying the right (at the request of the Father), was engaged in the same time with philosophical sciences, and also learned all the necessary methods of dialectics. At the same time, Martin Luther studied Latin classics and entered into close intercourse with representatives of Erfurt Humanism - Rubianus and Langa. In 1502, Luther received a bachelor's degree, and in 1505 Master of Philosophy.
In the same year, insignificant; The event served to change in the life of Luther, which marked the beginning of his future activity. Thunderstorm, causing him in the mountains, made a deep impression on his ardent nature; Luther was, according to his expression, "they are embraced by fear, sent from the sky," and since then he began to suffer doubts about the ability to achieve salvation in the sinfulness of human nature. He left a scattered life, entered the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt and adopted a priesthood (1507). However, despite the life, full of labor and repentance, the fear of the Divine Kara did not leave Luther, and in the silence of his cell, he was worried about not one difficult moment of sadness and despair. A decisive coup in his spiritual world was produced by one old monk, allowing all his doubts by simply indicating the chapter on the liberation of sins. The zealous study of the Holy Scriptures, on the one hand, and conversations with the prior of Augustine Order, the head of the village, on the other, contributed to the strengthening of the Luther of Consciousness in Martin about the possibility of achieving eternal salvation by the power of one faith.
Portrait of Martin Luther. Luka Artist Cranes Senior, 1525
Having done in 1511, on behalf of his order, a trip to Rome, Luther was horrified, seeing the deep spoilness of the Catholic clergy, nevertheless, he returned from Rome to another faithful son of the Catholic Church, deeply believing in its limitant authority. Even before the trip to Rome Martin Luther began to read the newly established lecture on Aristotle's lectures established by Wittenberg University; Having done a doctor of theology (1512), he began reading about the messages of the Apostle Paul, pronouncing the frequent sermons at Wittenberg Churches on the topic of God's grace, achieved by the help of the faith, which made the cornerstone of his teachings.
95 Luther Abstracts (briefly)
Soon, Luther has introduced the case to openly perform the enemy of the Roman Church. The abuse of papal indulgences reached the extreme limits. The Tzel trading in the vicinity of Wittenberg (1517) who traded these indulgesities (1517), precisely at the time when the anniversary of the consecration of the local Palace Church was celebrated, according to the custom of that time, such festivities were accompanied by publications that had to the door of the temple; Luther took advantage of this and nailed to the church doors of 95 theses, in which he indicated the difference between repentance, as an act of an internal, moral world, and the existing church recovery system. The success of 95 theses was emergency: during 14 days they managed to circumvent all Germany and were met by universal sympathy. In early 1518, 95 theses were condemned by the papal censor; And in 1519, the Papal Teolog of ECC summoned Martin Luther to the public dispute in Leipzig (regarding the main issue of the Pope's primacy), after which the final gap between Luther and the Roman Church was made.
Burning Luther Papal Bully
Working with a tireless, Martin Luther began to develop the doctrine on the right to the priesthood of all believers, about religious freedom, that the church does not need the Earthly Deputy Pope, and demanded, by the way, communion under both species and for laity . These teachings and its relationship with such reserved enemies of Rome, like Gutten, finally brought the wrath of the Pope. In 1520, a papal Bulla appeared, who renounced him from the church, to which Luther replied to a new essay: "On the freedom of a Christian personality," and Bullau solemnly burned together with Paddi decretains before Wittenberg. From the punishment for this act, Luther was saved only the intercession of the Kurfürst Friedrich Wise, who was before the election of Charles V governor of the imperial throne.
Both in the above-mentioned, and in the other writings published in the same year ("To the Christian nomination of the German nation about the correction of the Christian state" and "On the Babylonian captivity of the Church"), Martin Luther calls Christianity to the fight against the arrogant requirements of the dad and clergy, requires the destruction of the enslaved The people of the sins release system and indicate a direct rapprochement with God by faith, as the only source of calm and bliss.
Luther on the Worshi Sejm 1521 and in the castle Vartburg
In 1521, Martin Luther was demanded by the answer before Emperor Carl V and Reichstag; Waving to the imperial seam in Worms, he, in the face of the authorities and the numerous people, boldly defended his teaching and resolutely rejected the proposal to renounce his ideas.
Luther on the Worshi Sejm. Picture A. Von Verner, 1877
On the way back, on the initiative of his patron sieve, the Saxon Kurfursta Friedrich Wise, the "robbers attacked" Luther, brought him to Wartburg, where he hiding under a stranger name, found a safe refuge from all persecution and could safely surrender to his literary and reform activity. Here Luther made one of the overhairs of his life - the translation of the Bible into German.
Luther in Wartburg (where he lived under the name of Jorga). Luka Artist Cranes Senior, 1521-1522
Martin Luther Reformation (briefly)
For a short time, however, he retained in Wartburg. The fanatic extremes of his followers, the iconocration, the indecision of Melanchton in view of these events caused Luther from his refuge. He again appeared in Wittenberg and the power of hot sermons restored calm, after which the device of the transformed church was jealously, hugging her church service with his reformist activities (which was carried out in German, and many rites of which were replaced by prayer and singing hymns), church device, school etc., the result of which appeared his writings: "On the order of worship in the community", "Book of church songs", "Big Catechism", "Small Catechism" and others. Disclaimed celibacy clergy, Martin Luther married (1525) on Katharina Bohr Background (also former nun), then began to destroy the monasteries, turning their property to the device of schools, hospitals, etc.
Portrait of Martin Luther and his wife Bohr's cathedral. Luka Artist Cranes Senior, 1525
A bold religious reformer, Luther, however, stood firmly for the existing political system, dramatically condemning any attempt to change it. Thus, he was a hot opponent of the Munzer party, and during Peasant war In 1525, Goryacho convicted of peasants and anabaptists in two writings: "Calling to the world" and "against the peasants - robbers and murderers." Similarly, the reform activity of Zwingli met in him the enemy. In addition to religious and ritual disagreements with Swiss reformers, Martin Luther was an extreme opponent of the idea of \u200b\u200barmed resistance, as a result of which the extensive plan of Zwingli and Landgraf Hessen relative to the joint action of all the reform forces to combat the papacy and the Catholic monarchy. The final gap between the Lutheran or Saxon and South Heerman and Swiss Reformation followed the religious dispute in Marburg (1529) so that at the Augsburg Reichstage of 1530. The Saxon Germans acted already with their Persons, confessing faith ("Augsburg Confession"), which the process of education of Lutheran ended churches. However, in the following years, Luther continued to work tirelessly on the launched, while remaining faithful to his ideas: in this spirit they were drawn up in 1537. Shmalkaldenian articles; Guided by the same ideas, he rejected intermediary proposals in Regensburg in 1541 and an invitation to the Triedent Cathedral in 1545
Luther's identity
Forky, gusty, sometimes unlimitedly sharp when it was a matter of his religious beliefs, in private life Martin Luther was distinguished by the clarity of the Spirit, good-natured humor, a cheerful temper and a warm, compassionate attitude towards people. Inner, his spiritual life was represented, however, less calm: he experienced heavy, gloomy minutes, struggling with the devil, tormented by phantoms, threatened to face his consciousness. To this joined even frequent bodily suffering that developed in a painful disease that brought him into the grave. Before his death, Luther continued to act in Wittenberg as a preacher. He died on February 18, 1546 in Eisleben, in the city where he was born and where he went a few days before his death. The body is buried in Wittenberg.
Luther value
On the memory of Martin Luther remains reproaching in the indulgence of its high-ranking friends - princes. But this weakness partly batches his spiritual and moral qualities. No less important services rendered by Luther German literature. A new period in the history of the German language begins with him; The syllable of his sermons, brochures, treatises full of energy, strength and expressiveness, and descendants appreciate Martin Luther not only as a church reformer, but also as one of the most popular writers in Germany.
This year marks 500 years of starting the reformation. In 1517, 95 Theses of the German Theologian Martin Luther laid an end to the middle eyelids and led to the formation of a new denomination. He himself considered the reformation of the destructive, and his teaching was incomprehensible.
Promise
Martin Luther was a leaving of the poor peasants, which he himself always said with pride: "I am the son of a peasant, my father, grandfather and great-grandfather were clean peasants." Despite the origin, Kotto's good relations with the Burgers family allowed Luther to receive philosophical education at the University of Erfurt. Luther was a brilliant student, parents have referred to him a lawyer's career, but two events changed dramatically not only the life of Luther, but also, as it turned out, the course of world history.
During the student, the Luther had to bury the best friend - in a young man struck lightning. The death of a friend greatly influenced Luther. He involuntarily began to ask himself a question that would fall with him if God would also suddenly call.
Shortly thereafter, returning to Erfurt after the summer vacation, Luther also climb an unexpected thunderstorm. A deafening thunder blow rang near, lightning hit a few steps from him. In horror, he exclaimed: "Saint Anna, help me! I will be a monk! " The phrase broke out involuntarily, but Luther was not those who retreat from his word. Two weeks later, he performed his vow.
"On the arms of hell"
One of the critical moments in the life of Luther, who first gave a doubt in him in the rightness of the Catholic Church, is his trip to Rome. The journey made an extremely negative impression on the young monk. Luther was a German from his head to toe, practicality, rigor and simplicity were the national characteristics of his nature. In addition, he belonged to the Order of Augustine, whose members preached a ascetic lifestyle. And then the German monk falls into Italy, to the eternal city of Rome, where a luxurious life is an integral attribute of the life of the Church. Luther, with horror, then recalled the unchecity of the Romans, the greed of the clergy, his involvement in secular policy, transmitting an ancient proverb: "If there is hell underground, then Rome is built on his vaults." In Rome Luther heard boastful speeches of the monks who claimed that the Papal Mysinetina is stronger than all the German rulers; I heard offensive nicknames given to its compatriots. For such a female papacy, which Luther was, it was a murderous impression. Subsequently, he said that she would not take 100 thousand Tyler for this trip to Rome, which opened his eyes.
Miraculous goods of Tezel
The main stumbling block and the last straw for Luther was the question of indulgence. As you know, the "sale" of the forgiveness of sins was fairly common practice in the Middle Ages. Of course, it was officially not considered commerce. According to Catechism, the Catholic Church has an infinite number of Divine Grace and can give an absolution of temporary punishment for sins, that is, the Epitiaia. But for this, a person should give the most expensive, the equivalent of "dear" willingly recognized the money. Although the "traders of tickets to paradise" themselves often agreed by the adopted canon, exposing a diploma as a hundred percent guarantee for vacationing sins. This is how the Dominican tender, a person with a dubious reputation, but by oratory. In the flame expressions, he snatched the miraculous power of his product. He had a special price for each crime: 7 Chervonsev for a simple murder, 10 - for the murder of parents, 9 - for confusion and so on. He believed, the people ran to him for the diplomas, someone parted with the last pennies, just to save the soul from the purification of flour. In 1517, he appeared in the outskirts of Wittenberg, where Luther taught theology. Restricted by the fact that his flock prefers to buy a vacation, rather than reassure, Luther tried to dissuade the people. When it did not help, he appealed to the higher ranks - Archbishop Albrecht, who received his launches from the sale of indulgences. He concisely advised the obsessive theologian not to make enemies.
Hallowe'en
Neither exhorting to the people, no appeal to his "direct superiors" did not help the lutera to solve the problem. An absent result, he decided to find allies at the university. In the educated environment, Luther met those who were ready to divide his opinion. He actively supported the vicar of the Order of Augustine Johann Backgrounds. Luther hesitated for a long time, but the last straw for him was the statement of people of the flock, that they are not going to change their lives.
On November 1, 1517, a crowd of people began to gather around the Palace Church of Wittenberg, because in church festival, wide sins were promised in the church festival. But this time everything went "not on the script". By the door of the church itself, a document was brought a knife, which later entered the story as "95 theses".
Hidden forces
Many historians argue that Luther did not see anything illegal in his act and regretted his gap with dad. But the very fact is that he has been attricted by a knife to the door to the door of the main church of the city, did not mean further reconciliation with Rome! How the theologians decided on such a step, because after him Luther could wait, at best, loss of degrees and positions, at worst - Anathema, persecution and fire. This can only be two explanations: either this person was trembled, and did not understand what she was creating, or there was a certain influential figure for him, on the support of which he expected. And such force was.
By the XVI century, the rulers of the German principalities and the heads of cities suffered from the influence of the Vatican, who used them as a source of finance and in every way interfered into internal politics. The church had the right to do this, according to the teachings on the "Konstantinov Dara". Allegedly, the emperor Konstantin handed the supreme power over all the territories of the Roman Empire dad. By 1517, the relationship between Rome and the German rulers was so raised that only a reason was needed to start the war.
Disappointment
"I was alone and only in negligence involved in this case," then wrote about the reformation of Luther. It has not passed two years, and the scenery has completely changed. Now he was not alone in the warrior field, many scientists and theologians stood behind his back, Luther was playing political forces. It is believed that Martin himself was disappointed in motion, he believed that his teaching was incorrectly interpreted: "The reformer himself had to admit that in all this was mainly guilty his doctrine on excuses by one faith, was not understood. It would have to serve the correction of people, but it turns out the opposite, people are now stingy, ruthless, debauchery than before the papacy. " But Luther did not refuse his theses who were against the Roman church. He denied the ability of the Pope to let go of sins, his right to political activity, rejected indulgence. In general, caused a significant blow to the Vatican. He continued his criticism in his further writings, and in one even blessed the German princes to reform the church in the pamphlet "to the Christian nobility of the German nation."
Luther regretted on his famous translation of the Bible into German: "The simple people do not know neither the prayer of the Lord, nor the symbol of faith, or the Ten Commandments live as cattle, and, however, did not have time to appear the Gospel, already masterfully learned to use in evil christian freedom.
Personal benefit
But Luther also received some benefit from his understanding of "Christian Freedom." As you know, in my teaching he criticized the celibacy, and the very first filed an example, marrying Katharina Bohr who escaped from the monastery of the monastery.
Even Luther himself frightened the consequences of his act. Condeming Vatican debauchery, he was the first in the history of the church by a monk who violated the century-old traditions of celibate. Speaking against the prudency of the Church, he himself took a step towards worldly life. He himself confessed: "I am not alien to the desire, tested by a man, I'm not stone. But I realize that on any day I can be burned on the fire as a heretic. "
"I have a dream" ("I dream", "I Have a Dream") - the name of the most famous speech Martin Luther King. Martin Luther King uttered this speech around half a century ago on August 28, 1963 with the steps of the Lincoln Memorial during a march to Washington for workplaces and freedom. In this speech, King, the whole world proclaimed his vision of the future of the United States of America, where the white and black population could coexist as equal citizens of their country.
Watch the video "I Have a Dream"
in English
Watch the video "I have a dream"
in Russian
Martin Luther King's speech "I have a dream" and to the present it is a generally accepted masterpiece of oratory skills. Probably, many famous politicians repeatedly revised her, shelving their rhetorical skills.
Oratory techniques
Let's look at this famous speech from the point of view of using Martin Luther King special speakers, making the abstracts of his speech, turning his performance to the most powerful campaign weapon.
Style and format. Martin Luther King, being a Baptist priest, said this speech-sermon. Of course, it was not a preaching in its pure form, but the performance passed in a religious format, at that time so close for 300 thousand Americans who were standing at the foot of the Monument Lincoln. The performance of the speech is primarily dictated by the author's refusal from standard political slogans and the appeal to such a personal story about his dream.
Preparation for the performance. It is worth noting that this speech was not spontaneous, "I have a dream" Martin Luther King is consciously and very seriously. In the course of the speech, the author occasionally enjoyed his entries that helped him pronounce a magnificent emotional speech, without reservation and nothing. His voice sounded so natural and confident that this confidence was instantly passed to all those present. Without careful preparation, it would be simply impossible to pronounce such an infectious speech.
Metaphors. "We can cut down the stone of hope from the Mountain of despair", "We will be able to turn the unstasive voices of our people in the beautiful Symphony of the Brotherhood." The metaphors made the theses of King more clearly, brighter, and were able to truly give his thoughts emotional shades of the real dream, bring them to the most depth of consciousness and hearts of the listeners.
Quotes. King's speech is overwhelmed by allutias on the Old Town and the New Testament, the Declaration of Independence of the United States, the Manifesto on the release of slaves and the Constitution of the United States. The author deliberately uses quotes from those sources that are recognized as among its supporters and among opponents, thus addressing their speech and the other, increasing their chances of impact on the listeners.
Temp and pauses. The most important role in this speech is played by the pace of pronouncing text and logical pauses. They distinguish each phrase of speech, every finished thought. The main tempo of speech smooth, with a gradual tendency to accelerate, strengthen the emotional component, which heats the crowd of listeners, tearing out loud ovations and cries of approval.
The audience. You most likely noticed against the backdrop of King's speech by nodes, who reflect their confidence in the speaker, a real faith in his ideas. These individuals affect our perception of speech "I Have a Dream" subconsciously, using a human tendency to a conformism, the reluctance to go against the opinion of the majority. This speech is used by many politicians, it has not yet lost its relevance to this day.
Cyclic speech. Speech King can not be called a typical consistent presentation of one thought. Pay attention to the fact that it is repeatedly returning to certain theses of his speech. General places are the repeated appeals of the speaker to their comrades from Colorado, Mississippi, Alabama, who echoing with the ideas already mentioned by the author earlier, return the listeners to these thoughts, make it once again think about the main things for King.
Common theses
The concept of speech is built so that Martin Luther King is divided by his dream with his comrades. He does not declare how it should be and what should be done, but speaks only about what dreams of. However, the form of speech presentation does not detract from the influence of his abstracts to the audience, because King does not simply declare, calling to the mind, but affects the feelings of the listeners and inspires their ideas in their heads, their dreams. And this dream becomes common, and the people begins to believe in it.
In addition, Martin Luther King addresses his speech not only to the audience gathered at the Lincoln Memorial, but also by the leadership of the country, people who host the most important decisions. This fact is dictated by the special logic structure of theses in speech of the speaker. We can say that some of the statements and statements by Martin Luther King in the speech "I Have A Dream" were similar to the blackmail of the US authorities: "We will not calm until ...", "he says, turning to his comrades to designate Their feeling of identity with the protest movement, on the one hand, and turning to their opponents to force them to enter into negotiations to avoid unrest, on the other hand.
Quotes of speech
"I Have a Dream" - "I have a dream"
"I Say To Youday, My Friends, So Even Though We Face The DiffiCulties of Today and Tomorrow. I Still Have A Dream. IT IS A Dream Deeply Rooted in the American Dream. " "And although we are faced with difficulties today and will face them tomorrow, I still have a dream." This dream is deeply rooted in the American Dream. "
"I Have A Dream That One Day Down in Alabama, with its Vicious Racists, With its Governor Having His Lips Dripping with the Words of Interposition and Nullification; One Day Right Down in Alabama Little Black Boys and Black Girls Will Be Able to Join Hands with Little White Boys and White Girls AS Sisters and Brothers. " - "I dream today that one day in Alabama with her evil racists and the governor, from whose lips words about interference and annulment, one day, it was in Alabama, small black boys and girls will take way as sisters and brothers for hands with small White boys and girls. "
