Topographic signs and symbols of bushes and shrubs

How are elements of soil and vegetation cover, gardens, plantations, etc. designated?

Let's start with the swamps. According to the degree of cross-country ability they are divided into

Passable: swamps through which infantry can move in any direction in summer, both in open and closed formations.

Difficult to pass: swamps through which infantry can move with considerable difficulty and only in open formations.

Impassable: not even one person can pass

Conventional explanatory signs of age and forest species

Conventional signs and cartographic symbols of swamps

Conventional signs and cartographic designations of sands and steppes

Conventional signs and cartographic designations of land, plantations, etc.

Sometimes you can come across a combination of symbols. For example, a wet meadow and swamps where hay is made are indicated by the signs swamp and meadow.

on a topographic map.

1. Multiple buildings.
2. Destroyed buildings.
3. Single building.
4. Destroyed building.
5. Working mines.
6. Closed mines.
7. Industrial enterprise (plant, factory).
8. Factory pipe.
9. Power plant.
10. Warehouse of fuels and lubricants.
11. The tower is either stone or metal.
12. Lightweight tower (from the corners).
13. Television and radio towers.
14. Distribution transformer.
15. Television or radio broadcasting center.
16. Airstrip for airplanes (airfield).
17. Forester's housing.
18. Geodetic point.
19. Railway.
20. Stone or brick fence (fence).
21. Spring.
22. Well of water (crane).
23. Wind well.
24. Ordinary well, log house.
25. Muslim cemetery.
26. Main locations of tents and yurts.
27. Electric wires on wooden poles.
28. Electrical wires on concrete poles.
29. Engines powered by wind (power plants).
30. Windmills.
31. Peat extraction is large-scale.
32. Water mill.
33. Gas station.
34. Meteorological point.
35. Chapel.
36. Church (temple, cathedral).
37. Large cemetery.
38. Small cemetery.
39. Monuments, obelisks, memorials and memorials.
40. Beekeeping apiary.

41. Forest. The numbers in the numerators are the height, the denominators are the girth of the trunk, the number next to them is the distance between the trees. In front of the fractions, they can write what kind of forest: birch, maple, oak, or mixed.
42. Coniferous forest.
43. Forest cut down.
44. Rare forest.
45. Overgrown bushes.
46. ​​Salt marshes are impassable.
47. Passable salt marshes.
48. Impenetrable swamps with vegetation. If there are three lines (as in the picture) - moss. If there are two lines - grass. A bush represents reeds or reeds.
49. Fruit garden.
50. Dry or burnt forest.
51. Reed or reed.
52. Forest felled by a storm (hurricane, tornado).
53. Tall grass stand.
54. Meadow vegetation, less than one meter in height.
55. Young trees.

56. Gullies and pits.

57. Mounds.

58. Absolute altitude.

59. Stones.

60. Cave.

61. Indication of a ford on the river. The first digit in the denominator is the depth, the second is the length. In the numerator, the first is the type of soil (T - hard), the second is the speed of the river flow.

62. Terricons.

63. Lime burning.

Scale, or contour, conventional topographic signs are used to depict local objects whose size can be expressed on a map scale, that is, their dimensions (length, width, area) can be measured on the map. For example: lake, meadow, large gardens, neighborhoods settlements. The contours (external boundaries) of such local objects are depicted on the map with solid lines or dotted lines, forming figures similar to these local objects, but only in a reduced form, that is, on the scale of the map. Solid lines show the contours of neighborhoods, lakes, and wide rivers, and the contours of forests, meadows, and swamps are dotted.

Figure 31.

Structures and buildings, expressed on the scale of the map, are depicted with figures similar to their actual outlines on the ground and are painted over in black. Figure 31 shows several on-scale (a) and out-of-scale (b) symbols.

Off-scale symbols

Explanatory topographic signs serve for additional characterization of local objects and are used in combination with large-scale and non-scale signs. For example, a figurine of a coniferous or deciduous tree inside the outline of a forest shows the dominant tree species in it, an arrow on a river indicates the direction of its flow, etc.

In addition to signs, maps use full and abbreviated signatures, as well as digital characteristics of some objects. For example, the signature “mash.” with a plant sign means that this plant is a machine-building plant. The names of settlements, rivers, mountains, etc. are fully signed.

Digital symbols are used to indicate the number of houses in rural settlements, the height of the terrain above sea level, the width of the road, the characteristics of the load capacity and the size of the bridge, as well as the size of trees in the forest, etc. Digital symbols related to conventional relief signs are printed brown, the width and depth of rivers are in blue, everything else is in black.

Let us briefly consider the main types of topographic symbols for depicting the area on the map.

Let's start with the relief. Due to the fact that observation conditions largely depend on its nature, the terrain's passability and its protective properties, the terrain and its elements are depicted on all topographic maps in great detail. Otherwise, we could not use the map to study and evaluate the area.

In order to clearly and completely imagine the area on the map, you must first of all be able to quickly and correctly determine on the map:

Types of irregularities earth's surface and their relative position;

Mutual elevation and absolute heights of any terrain points;

The shape, steepness and length of the slopes.

On modern topographic maps, the relief is depicted by horizontal lines, that is, curved closed lines, the points of which are located on the ground at the same height above sea level. To better understand the essence of depicting relief with horizontal lines, let’s imagine an island in the form of a mountain, gradually flooded with water. Let us assume that the water level sequentially stops at equal intervals, equal in height to h meters (Fig. 32).

Then each water level will have its own coastline in the form of a closed curved line, all points of which have the same height. These lines can also be considered as traces of the section of uneven terrain by planes parallel to the level surface of the sea, from which heights are calculated. Based on this, the height distance h between the secant surfaces is called the section height.

Figure 32.

So, if all lines of equal heights are projected onto the level surface of the sea and depicted to scale, then we will receive an image of the mountain on the map in the form of a system of curved closed lines. These will be the horizontal lines.

In order to find out whether it is a mountain or a basin, there are slope indicators - small lines that are drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines in the direction of the descent of the slope.

Figure 33.

The main (typical) landforms are presented in Figure 32.

The height of the section depends on the scale of the map and the nature of the relief. The normal height of the section is considered to be a height equal to 0.02 of the map scale, that is, 5 m for a map of scale 1:25,000 and, accordingly, 10, 20 m for maps of scales 1: 50,000, 1: 100,000. Contour lines on the map corresponding to those established for below the height of the section, are drawn in solid lines and are called main or solid horizontal lines. But it happens that at a given section height, important details of the relief are not expressed on the map, since they are located between the cutting planes.

Then half semi-horizontal lines are used, which are drawn through half the main height of the section and are plotted on the map with broken lines. To determine the count of contours when determining the height of points on the map, all solid contours corresponding to five times the height of the section are drawn thickly (thickened contours). So, for a map of scale 1: 25,000, each horizontal line corresponding to the section height of 25, 50, 75, 100 m, etc. will be drawn as a thick line on the map. The main section height is always indicated below the south side of the map frame.

The altitudes of the terrain depicted on our maps are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. The heights of points on the earth's surface above sea level are called absolute, and the elevation of one point over another is called relative elevation. Contour marks - digital inscriptions on them - indicate the height of these terrain points above sea level. The top of these numbers always faces the upward slope.

Figure 34.

Marks of command heights, from which the terrain from the most important objects on the map (large settlements, road junctions, passes, mountain passes, etc.) is better visible than from others, are marked in large numbers.

Using contour lines you can determine the steepness of slopes. If you look closely at Figure 33, you can see from it that the distance between two adjacent contour lines on the map, called the lay (at a constant section height), changes depending on the steepness of the slope. The steeper the slope, the smaller the overlay and, conversely, the lower the slope, the greater the overlay. The conclusion follows from this: steep slopes on the map will differ in the density (frequency) of contours, and in flat places the contours will be less frequent.

Usually, to determine the steepness of the slopes, a drawing is placed in the margins of the map - depth scale(Fig. 35). Along the lower base of this scale are numbers that indicate the steepness of the slopes in degrees. The corresponding values ​​of the deposits on the map scale are plotted on perpendiculars to the base. On the left side, the depth scale is built for the main section height, on the right - at five times the section height. To determine the steepness of the slope, for example, between points a-b(Fig. 35), you need to take this distance with a compass and put it on the position scale and read the steepness of the slope - 3.5°. If it is necessary to determine the steepness of the slope between the thickened horizontal lines, then this distance must be set aside on the right scale and the steepness of the slope in this case will be equal to 10°.

Figure 35.

Knowing the properties of contour lines, you can determine the shape from the map various types stingrays (Fig. 34). For a flat slope, the depths will be approximately the same throughout its entire length; for a concave slope, they increase from the top to the bottom; and for a convex slope, on the contrary, the formations decrease towards the bottom. In wavy slopes, the positions change according to the alternation of the first three forms.

When depicting relief on maps, not all of its elements can be expressed as contours. So, for example, slopes with a steepness of more than 40° cannot be expressed as horizontals, since the distance between them will be so small that they will all merge. Therefore, slopes that have a steepness of more than 40° and are steep are indicated by horizontal lines with dashes (Fig. 36). Moreover, natural cliffs, ravines, gullies are indicated in brown, and artificial embankments, recesses, mounds and pits are indicated in black.

Figure 36.

Let's consider the basic conventional topographical signs for local objects. Settlements are depicted on the map while maintaining external boundaries and layout (Fig. 37). All streets, squares, gardens, rivers and canals are shown, industrial enterprises, outstanding buildings and structures of landmark significance. For better visibility, fire-resistant buildings (stone, concrete, brick) are painted orange, and blocks with non-fire-resistant buildings are painted yellow. The names of settlements on maps are written strictly from west to east. The type of administrative significance of a settlement is determined by the type and size of the font (Fig. 37). Under the signature of the name of the village you can find a number indicating the number of houses in it, and if there is a district or village council in the settlement, the letters “RS” and “SS” are additionally placed.

Figure 37 - 1.

Figure 37 - 2.

No matter how poor the area is in local objects or, on the contrary, saturated, there are always individual objects on it that, by their size, stand out from the rest and are easily identified on the ground. Many of them can be used as guides. This should include: factory chimneys and prominent buildings, tower-type buildings, wind turbines, monuments, gas pumps, signs, kilometer posts, free-standing trees, etc. (Fig. 37). Most of them, due to their size, cannot be shown on the scale of the map, so they are depicted on it as out-of-scale signs.

The road network and crossings (Fig. 38, 1) are also depicted with out-of-scale symbols. Data on the width of the roadway, road surface, indicated on the conventional signs, make it possible to evaluate their throughput, load capacity, etc. Depending on the number of tracks, railways are indicated by dashes across the conventional road sign: three dashes - three-track, two dashes - double-track railway . Stations, embankments, excavations, bridges and other structures are shown on railways. For bridges longer than 10 m, its characteristics are signed.

Figure 38 - 1.

Figure 38 - 2.

Figure 39.

For example, the signature on the bridge ~ means that the length of the bridge is 25 m, the width is 6 m, and the load capacity is 5 tons.

Hydrography and structures associated with it (Fig. 38, 2), depending on the scale, are shown in greater or less detail. The width and depth of the river is written as a fraction 120/4.8, which means:

The river is 120 m wide and 4.8 m deep. The speed of the river flow is shown in the middle of the symbol with an arrow and a number (the number indicates the speed of 0.1 meters per second, and the arrow indicates the direction of the flow). On rivers and lakes, the height of the water level during low water (water line mark) in relation to sea level is also indicated. For fords it is signed: in the numerator - the depth of the ford in meters, and in the denominator - the quality of the soil (T - hard, P - sandy, V - viscous, K - rocky). For example, br. 1.2/k means that the ford is 1.2 m deep and the bottom is rocky.

Soil and vegetation cover (Fig. 39) is usually depicted on maps with large-scale symbols. These include forests, shrubs, gardens, parks, meadows, swamps, salt marshes, as well as sand, rocky surfaces, and pebbles. Its characteristics are indicated in the forests. For example, for a mixed forest (spruce with birch) the numbers are 20/\0.25 - this means that the average height of the trees in the forest is 20 m, their average thickness is 0.25 m, and the average distance between tree trunks is 5 meters.

Figure 40.

Swamps are depicted depending on their passability on the map: passable, difficult to pass, impassable (Fig. 40). Passable swamps have a depth (to solid ground) of no more than 0.3-0.4 m, which is not shown on maps. The depth of impassable and impassable swamps is written next to the vertical arrow indicating the location of the measurement. On the maps, the corresponding symbols show the cover of the swamps (grass, moss, reed), as well as the presence of forests and shrubs on them.

Lumpy sands differ from smooth sands and are indicated on the map with a special symbol. In the southern steppe and semi-steppe regions there are areas with soil richly saturated with salt, which are called salt marshes. They are wet and dry, some are impassable and others are passable. On maps they are indicated by conventional symbols - “shading” of blue color. An image of salt marshes, sands, swamps, soil and vegetation cover is shown in Figure 40.

Off-scale symbols of local objects

Answer: Off-scale symbols are used to depict small local objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale - free-standing trees, houses, wells, monuments, etc. When depicting them on a map scale, they would appear in the form of a point. Examples of depicting local objects with out-of-scale symbols are shown in Figure 31. The exact location of these objects, depicted with out-of-scale symbols (b), is determined by the center of the symmetrical figure (7, 8, 9, 14, 15), in the middle of the base of the figure (10, 11) , at the top of the corner of the figure (12, 13). Such a point on the figure of an off-scale symbol is called the main point. In this figure, the arrow shows the main points of symbols on the map.

It is useful to remember this information in order to correctly measure the distance between local objects on the map.

(This question is discussed in detail in question No. 23)

Explanatory and conventional signs of local objects

Answer: Types of topographical symbols

The terrain on maps and plans is depicted by topographical symbols. All conventional signs of local objects, according to their properties and purpose, can be divided into the following three groups: contour, scale, explanatory.

Map frames and coordinate lines. Sheets of topographic maps have three frames: inner, minute and outer. The inner frame is formed by segments of parallels that limit the map area from the north and south, and segments of meridians that limit it from the west and east. The values ​​of latitude and longitude on the lines of the inner frame are associated with the nomenclature of the map and are written in each corner.

Between the inner and outer frames is a minute frame, on which are marked the divisions corresponding to one minute of latitude (left and right) and longitude (top and bottom). Dots on the frame mark tens of seconds.

The rectangular coordinate system on the map is represented by a kilometer grid formed by coordinate lines drawn through 1 km x And y. Values x And y, expressed in kilometers, are inscribed at the exits of the lines beyond the inner frame of the map.

Plans at scales 1:5000-1:500 with a rectangular layout have only a grid of rectangular coordinates. Its lines are drawn every 10 cm.

Conventional signs. On plans and maps, terrain features are depicted with conventional symbols.

Conventional signs distinguish between contour, non-scale and linear.

Contour symbols depict objects whose shape and size can be conveyed on the scale of a plan (map). These include land (forests, gardens, arable lands, meadows), reservoirs, and on a larger scale - buildings and structures. The outlines of objects (contours) on the plan are shown with dotted lines or lines of a certain thickness and color. Signs indicating the nature of the object are placed inside the outline.

Out-of-scale symbols depict objects that need to be put on the plan, but cannot be depicted to scale (gas stations, wells, points of a geodetic network, etc.).

Linear symbols depict objects whose length is expressed on the plan scale, but whose width is not expressed (power and communication lines, pipelines, fences, paths).

To reflect the characteristics of the depicted objects, many symbols are accompanied by explanatory captions. So, when depicting railway indicate the height of the embankment and the depth of the excavation, the track width on a narrow-gauge road. When depicting a highway, indicate its width and coating material; when depicting communication lines - the number of wires and their purpose; when depicting forests - tree species, average height, thickness of trunks and distance between trees.

Relief image. On maps and plans, the relief is depicted using contour lines, elevation marks and symbols.

Horizontals- lines of section of the earth's surface by equidistant level surfaces. In other words, horizontal lines are lines of equal heights. Horizontal lines, like other terrain points, are projected onto a level surface Q and applied to the plan (Fig. 4.3).

Rice. 4.3. Horizontals: h– height of the relief section; d– laying

Difference h heights of adjacent horizontal lines, equal to the distance between secant surfaces, is called relief section height. The value of the section height is signed at the bottom frame of the plan.

The horizontal distance between adjacent horizontal lines is called mortgage. The minimum position in this place is perpendicular to the horizontal lines, - laying of the slope. The lower the slope, the steeper the slope.

The direction of the slope is indicated berg strokes- short strokes at some horizontal lines, directed towards the descent. On individual horizontal lines, their heights are written in their breaks so that the top of the numbers points in the direction of the rise.

Horizontal lines with round height values ​​are made thicker, and to reflect relief details they are used semi-horizontal– dashed lines corresponding to half the height of the relief section, as well as auxiliary horizontal lines with short strokes, carried out at an arbitrary height.

The depiction of the relief with horizontal lines is supplemented by inscribing elevation marks on the plan near characteristic points of the relief and with special symbols depicting cliffs, rocks, ravines, etc.

The main landforms are mountain, basin, ridge, hollow and saddle (Fig. 4.4).

Rice. 4.4. Main landforms: A– mountain; b– basin; V– ridge; G- hollow; d– saddle; 1 – watershed line; 2 – drainage line.

Mountain(hill, hill, mound, hill) is depicted by closed horizontal lines with berg strokes facing outwards (Fig. 4.4, A). The characteristic points of a mountain are its top and points at the bottom.

Basin(depression) is also depicted by closed horizontal lines, but with berg strokes facing inward (Fig. 4.4, b). The characteristic points of the basin are the points on its bottom and along the edge.

Ridge- elongated hill. It is depicted as elongated horizontal lines going around the crest of the ridge and running along its slopes (Fig. 4.4, V). The berghstrokes, like those of the mountain, face outwards. The characteristic line of a ridge is that running along its crest watershed line.

Hollow(valley, gorge, ravine, gully) - a depression elongated in one direction. Depicted as elongated horizontal lines with bergschriches facing inward (Fig. 4.4, G). The characteristic line of the valley is drain line(thalweg) - a line along which water runs.

Saddle(pass) - a depression between two hills (Fig. 4.4, d). There are hollows on both sides of the saddle. A saddle is the intersection of the watershed and drainage lines.

Basic elements of map content. Scale, non-scale and explanatory symbols. Card design. General rules reading topographic maps

Basic elements of map content

Conventional signs are graphic symbols showing the position of an object on the ground and conveying its qualitative and quantitative characteristics. In the Russian Federation and the CIS countries, 465 symbols are used (in the USA - 243, in France - 288, in Germany - 231).

Groups of homogeneous local objects are depicted on maps using the main (basic) symbol. The qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects of one group are determined by complicating the basic symbol.

The larger the scale of the map, the more objects and in greater detail are shown on it when depicting a given territory. As the scale of the map decreases, the information capacity of the images of various objects on it decreases.

On topographic maps of scale 1:25000 - 1:100000, whenever possible, all topographic objects and their characteristics, important for the troops. On maps of scales 1:200000 and 1:500000 only the most significant of them are displayed, with a significant generalization of their planned outlines and other indicators.

Conventional signs of local objects are divided into three main groups:

Large-scale;

Non-scale;

Explanatory.

Scale (or outline) Conventional signs denote objects expressed on a map scale, that is, those whose dimensions (length, width, area) can be measured on the map.

Each such sign consists of a contour, i.e. a planned outline of the depicted object and an explanatory designation filling it in the form of background coloring, colored shading or a grid of icons (memory signs) identical in design, indicating the genus and variety of the object. The contours of objects are shown as dotted lines on maps if they do not coincide with other terrain lines (ditches, coastlines, roads, etc.), which are indicated by their own symbols.

Off-scale (point) Conventional signs depict small-sized objects (wells, individual houses, towers, monuments, etc.) that are not expressed on the scale of the map; the figured design of such a sign includes the main point showing the exact position of the object on the ground and indicates what kind of object it is.

Off-scale symbols can be divided into 4 groups depending on the position of the main point:

Signs that have a center of symmetry (circle, square, rectangle, asterisk, etc.); the main point coincides with the center of symmetry;

Signs that have a wide base, the main point is in the middle of the base;

Signs having a base in the form of a right angle; the main point is at the top of the corner;

Signs representing a combination of several figures; the main point is in the center the symmetry of the lower figure.

Geometric center of a figure

Rice. 1. 1 - points of the geodetic network; 2 - points of the survey network, fixed on the ground by centers; 3 - astronomical points; 4 - churches; 5 - plants, factories and mills without pipes; 6 - power plants; 7 - water mills and sawmills; 8 - fuel warehouses and gas tanks; 9 - active mines and adits; 10 - oil and gas wells without towers.

The middle of the base of the sign

Rice. 2 . 1 - factory and factory pipes; 2 - waste heaps; 3 - telegraph and radiotelegraph offices and departments, telephone exchanges; 4 - meteorological stations; 5 - semaphores and traffic lights; 6 - monuments, monuments, mass graves, tours and stone pillars more than 1 m high; 7 - Buddhist monasteries; 8 - separately lying stones.

The vertex of a right angle at the base of the sign

Rice. 3. 1 - wind engines; 2 - gas stations and gas stations4 3 - windmills; 4 - permanent river signaling signs; 5 - free-standing deciduous trees; 6 - free-standing coniferous trees

Geometric center of the bottom figure

Rice. 4. 1 - plants, factories and mills with pipes; 2 - transformer booths; 3 - radio stations and television centers; 4 - oil and gas rigs; 5 - tower-type structures; 6 - chapels; 7 - mosques; 8 - radio masts and television masts; 9 - kilns for burning lime and charcoal; 10 - mazars, suborgans.

These main points must be used when accurately measuring distances between objects on the map and when determining the coordinates of objects. Non-scale conventional signs include such signs of roads, streams and other linear objects, for which only the length is expressed on a scale, while the width cannot be measured on the map. The exact position of such objects on the ground corresponds to the longitudinal axis (middle) of the sign on the map.

Explanatory symbols are used for additional qualitative and quantitative characteristics of depicted objects and to show their varieties (for example, a symbol of a tree inside a forest).

Card design

Outline design of topographic maps. On every sheet topographic map On the outside of the frame, various information necessary for working with cardboard is placed.

Under the nomenclature the number and year of publication of the card are given.

Under the lower (south) side of the frame on the left, data on magnetic declination, convergence of meridians and direction correction are given, and the drawing shows the relationship of these angular quantities; in the middle the linear and numerical scales of the map are placed, the scale value and the height of the relief section are indicated; to the right of the scale there is a scale of depth, intended for determining the steepness of the slopes; on the right it indicates when and by what method the map was created. Data on the time of creation of the map allows us to judge the correspondence of the terrain map to this moment(period).

Between the inner and outer lines of the frame of the map sheet, digitization of the vertical and horizontal lines of the coordinate (kilometer) grid and signatures of the geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) of the corners of the frame are given.

The sides of the frame are divided into minute divisions (in latitude and longitude), and each minute division is divided into six parts of ten seconds each by dots.

In addition, at the exits of railways and highways the name of the nearest city, town or station where this road leads is given, indicating the distance in kilometers from the frame to this populated area (station).

Inside the frames, the proper names of settlements are also written, which are only partially depicted on this sheet, and most of them are located on the adjacent sheet.

General rules for reading topographic maps

Reading a map means correctly and fully perceiving the symbolism of its conventional signs, quickly and accurately recognizing from them not only the type and varieties of objects depicted, but also their characteristic properties.

Studying a terrain using a map (reading a map) includes determining its general nature, the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of individual elements (local objects and landforms), as well as determining the degree of influence of a given area on the organization and conduct of combat.

When studying the area using a map, you should remember that since its creation, changes may have occurred in the area that are not reflected on the map, i.e. the contents of the map will to some extent not correspond to the actual state of the area at the moment. Therefore, it is recommended to begin studying the area using a map by familiarizing yourself with the map itself.

Familiarization with the map. When familiarizing yourself with the map, using the information placed in the outer frame, determine the scale, height of the relief section and the time of creation of the map. Data on the scale and height of the relief section will allow you to establish the degree of detail of the image on a given map of local objects, shapes and relief details. Knowing the scale, you can quickly determine the size of local objects or their distance from each other.

Information about the time of creation of the map will make it possible to preliminarily determine the correspondence of the contents of the map to the actual state of the area.

Then they read and, if possible, remember the values ​​of the magnetic needle declination and direction corrections. Knowing the direction correction from memory, you can quickly convert directional angles into magnetic azimuths or orient the map on the ground along the kilometer grid line.

General rules and sequence of studying the area on the map. The sequence and degree of detail in studying the terrain is determined by the specific conditions of the combat situation, the nature of the unit's combat mission, as well as seasonal conditions and tactical and technical data of the military equipment used in carrying out the assigned combat mission. When organizing defense in a city, it is important to determine the nature of its planning and development, identifying durable buildings with basements and underground structures. In the case where the unit’s route passes through the city, there is no need to study the features of the city in such detail. When organizing an offensive in the mountains, the main objects of study are passes, mountain passages, gorges and gorges with adjacent heights, the shape of the slopes and their influence on the organization of the fire system.

The study of terrain, as a rule, begins with determining its general nature, and then studies in detail individual local objects, shapes and details of the relief, their influence on the conditions of observation, camouflage, cross-country ability, protective properties, conditions of fire and orientation.

Determining the general character of the area is aimed at identifying the most important features relief and local objects that have a significant impact on the completion of the task. When determining the general nature of an area based on familiarization with the topography, settlements, roads, hydrographic network and vegetation cover, the variety of the area, the degree of its ruggedness and closedness are identified, which makes it possible to preliminarily determine its tactical and protective properties.

General character The area is determined by a quick overview of the map of the entire study area.

At first glance at the map, one can tell that there are settlements and individual tracts of forest, cliffs and gullies, lakes, rivers and streams indicating rough terrain and limited visibility, which inevitably complicates the movement of military and transport equipment off roads and creates difficulties in organizing surveillance . At the same time, the rugged nature of the terrain creates good conditions for sheltering and protecting units from the effects of weapons mass destruction enemy, and forest areas can be used to camouflage unit personnel, military equipment, etc.

Thus, as a result of determining the general nature of the terrain, a conclusion is drawn about the accessibility of the area and its individual directions for the operations of units on vehicles, and they also outline boundaries and objects that should be studied in more detail, taking into account the nature of the combat mission to be performed in this area of ​​the terrain.

A detailed study of the area aims to determine the qualitative characteristics of local objects, shapes and relief details within the boundaries of the unit’s operations or along the upcoming route of movement. Based on obtaining such data from a map and taking into account the relationship of topographic elements of the terrain (local objects and relief), an assessment is made of the conditions of cross-country ability, camouflage and surveillance, orientation, firing, and the protective properties of the terrain are determined.

Determination of the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of local objects is carried out using a map with relatively high accuracy and great detail.

When studying settlements using a map, the number of settlements, their type and dispersion are determined, and the degree of habitability of a particular area (district) of the area is determined. The main indicators of the tactical and protective properties of settlements are their area and configuration, the nature of the layout and development, the presence of underground structures, the nature of the terrain on the approaches to the settlement.

By reading the map, using the conventional signs of settlements, they establish the presence, type and location of them in a given area of ​​the area, determine the nature of the outskirts and layout, the density of

construction sites and fire resistance of buildings, location of streets, main passages, presence of industrial facilities, prominent buildings and landmarks.

When studying the road network using a map, the degree of development of the road network and the quality of roads are clarified, the traffic conditions of a given area and the possibility of efficient use of vehicles are determined.

A more detailed study of roads establishes: the presence and characteristics of bridges, embankments, excavations and other structures; the presence of difficult areas, steep descents and ascents; possibility of leaving roads and driving near them.

When studying dirt roads, special attention is paid to identifying the load capacity of bridges and ferry crossings, since on such roads they are often not designed to accommodate heavy wheeled and tracked vehicles.

By studying hydrography, the presence of water bodies is determined from the map, and the degree of ruggedness of the area is specified. The presence of water bodies creates good conditions for water supply and transportation on waterways.

Water surfaces are depicted on maps in blue or light blue, so they clearly stand out among the symbols of other local objects. When studying rivers, canals, streams, lakes and other water barriers using a map, the width, depth, flow speed, nature of the bottom soil, banks and surrounding areas are determined; the presence and characteristics of bridges, dams, locks, ferry crossings, fords and areas convenient for crossing are established.

When studying the soil and vegetation cover, the presence and characteristics of forests and shrubs, swamps, salt marshes, sands, rocky placers and those elements of the soil and vegetation cover that can have a significant impact on the conditions of passage, camouflage, observation and the possibility of shelter are determined from the map.

The characteristics of the forest area studied from the map allow us to draw a conclusion about the possibility of using it for a secretive and dispersed location of units, as well as about the passability of the forest along roads and clearings. Good landmarks in the forest for determining your location and orienting yourself while moving are the forester’s house and clearings.

The characteristics of swamps are determined by the outline of symbols. However, when determining the passability of swamps on a map, one should take into account the time of year and weather conditions. During the period of rains and muddy roads, swamps, shown on the map as passable by a symbol, may actually turn out to be difficult to pass. In winter, during severe frosts, impassable swamps can become easily passable.

Studying the terrain on a map begins with determining the general nature of the unevenness of the area of ​​​​the terrain on which the combat mission is to be carried out. At the same time, the presence, location and interconnection of the most characteristic features for a given area are established. standard forms and relief details, is determined in general view their influence on the conditions of cross-country ability, observation, firing, camouflage, orientation and organization of protection against weapons of mass destruction. The general nature of the relief can be quickly determined by the density and outline of contours, elevation marks and symbols of relief details.

A detailed study of the terrain on a map is associated with solving problems of determining the heights and mutual elevation of points, the type and direction of the steepness of the slopes, the characteristics (depth, width and length) of hollows, ravines, gullies and other relief details.

Naturally, the need to solve specific problems will depend on the nature of the assigned combat mission. For example, the determination of invisibility fields will be required when organizing and conducting surveillance reconnaissance; determining the steepness, height and length of the slopes will be required when determining terrain conditions and choosing a route, etc.