She was German by nationality. However, history recognizes this woman as one of the greatest Russian leaders, and deservedly so. The biography of Catherine 2 was very eventful: her life took many sharp turns and contained many bright, interesting and very important events for Russian history. It is not surprising that many books have been written and a large number of films have been made about the fate of this outstanding woman.
Princess Fike
At birth her name was Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst (1729-1796), she was the daughter of Prince Christian of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in Prussian service. At home, the girl was called Fike (a kind of diminutive of Frederick), she was inquisitive, willing to study, but showed a penchant for boyish games.
A poor and not very noble girl was chosen as the bride of the heir to the Russian throne only for the reason that Empress Elizaveta Petrovna had once been the bride of her uncle. Peter Fedorovich, Elizabeth's nephew (the future Peter 3) and Sophia-Frederica were married in 1745. Before this, the bride converted to Orthodoxy and was baptized in the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna.
Peter was forced to marry Catherine by force, and he immediately disliked his wife. The marriage was extremely unsuccessful - the husband not only neglected his wife, but also clearly mocked and humiliated her. Empress Elizabeth immediately after her birth took away her son from Catherine, as a result of which the relationship between mother and son also did not work out. Of all her relatives, she only got along with her grandchildren, Alexander and Konstantin.
Probably, an unsuccessful marriage led Catherine 2 to a free lifestyle. She had lovers (almost openly) during her husband’s lifetime. Among them there were all sorts, but it is noteworthy that among Catherine’s favorites there were many truly outstanding people. Such a way of life among the monarchs of that time, deprived of the opportunity to choose a life partner according to inclination, was not something special.
Coup d'etat
After the death of Elizabeth (January 1762 according to the new style), Catherine rightly feared for her life - she only interfered with the new sovereign. But
Many influential nobles were also dissatisfied with Peter 3. They united around the empress, and on July 9 (June 28, old style) of the same year, a coup d'état took place.
Peter abdicated the throne, and soon died (the murder has not been proven, but more than likely, it simply had to be planned). Relying on the support of her supporters, Catherine was crowned, and did not become regent under her son Paul.
Catherine the Great
The period of Catherine's reign was then called the "golden age". This is not accurate, but the empress really did a lot for the country.
The territory of the state increased significantly - the lands of modern Southern and Central Ukraine, part of Poland, Finland, and Crimea were annexed. Russia won three wars with Turkey.
Catherine 2 reformed the management system: she carried out a provincial reform, changed the powers of the Senate, transferred church property to public administration. Corruption remained a big problem, but during the time of Catherine II, dignitaries still worked more than took bribes. The empress herself sometimes appointed incapable people to high positions (out of personal sympathy or at the request of someone close to her), but this did not happen regularly.
Enthroned by the nobility, Catherine involuntarily became a hostage of this class. The nobility came first for her:
- she distributed more than 800 thousand state peasants in favor of the landowners;
- noble dignitaries received awards of tens of thousands of acres of land;
- The “Charter Granted to the Nobility” of 1785 endowed the nobles with a host of additional privileges and actually allowed them not to serve the state.
But at the same time, the empress did not forget other classes - in the same year the “Charter of Grant to the Cities” appeared.
Catherine 2 was known as an enlightened monarch. This is true with a stretch - its absolutism and serfdom do not quite correspond to the idea of the Enlightenment. But she was engaged in literary activities, patronized publishers, D. Diderot was her librarian for some time, during her reign the Academy of Sciences and the Smolny Institute were created, she introduced smallpox vaccination in the country.
But the empress was not a kind mother. Any protest was suppressed mercilessly. Catherine harshly suppressed the uprising, liquidated the Zaporozhye Sich, and the publicist Radishchev for criticism Russian system quickly found himself behind bars.
Skilled personnel officer
The main thing is that Catherine 2 knew how to choose people. She was domineering, strong, authoritarian. But her closest aides always felt how much she considered their opinion. It is not surprising that Catherine’s era gave the country such outstanding figures as G. Orlov, G. Potemkin (Tavrichesky), A. Suvorov, E. Dashkova.
The Empress died of a hypertensive crisis in November 1796. Fate - the blow happened in the restroom (this is not uncommon for hypertensive patients), where the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was adapted as a toilet. Catherine was an active destroyer of this state...
Catherine II is the great Russian empress, whose reign became the most significant period in Russian history. The era of Catherine the Great is marked by a “golden age” Russian Empire, cultural and political life which the queen raised to the European level.
Portrait of Catherine II. Artist Vladimir Borovikovsky / Tretyakov Gallery
The biography of Catherine II is full of light and dark stripes, numerous plans and achievements, as well as a stormy personal life, about which films are made and books are written to this day.
Childhood and youth
Catherine II was born on May 2 (April 21, old style) 1729 in Prussia in the family of the governor of Stettin, Prince of Zerbst and the Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp. Despite the rich pedigree, the princess's family did not have a significant fortune, but this did not stop her parents from providing home schooling for my daughter. At the same time, the future Russian empress learned English, Italian and French languages, mastered dancing and singing, and also gained knowledge of the basics of history, geography and theology.
As a child, the young princess was a playful and curious child with a pronounced “boyish” character. She did not show bright mental abilities and did not demonstrate her talents, but she helped her mother in raising younger sister Augusta, which suited both parents. In her youth, her mother called Catherine II Fike, which means little Federica.
Catherine II in her youth. Artist Louis Caravaque / Gatchina Palace At the age of 15, it became known that the Princess of Zerbst had been chosen as a bride for the heir Peter Fedorovich, who later became the Russian Emperor. The princess and her mother were secretly invited to Russia, where they went under the name of the Countesses of Rhinebeck.
The girl immediately began to study Russian history, language and Orthodoxy in order to learn more fully about her new homeland. Soon she converted to Orthodoxy and was named Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the next day she became engaged to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was her second cousin.
Palace coup and ascension to the throne
After the wedding with Peter III, nothing changed in the life of the future Russian empress - she continued to devote herself to self-education, studying philosophy, jurisprudence and the works of world famous authors, since her husband showed no interest in her and openly had fun with other ladies in front of her eyes. After 9 years of marriage, when the relationship between Peter and Catherine finally went wrong, the queen gave birth to an heir to the throne, who was immediately taken away from her and was not allowed to see him.
Paul I, son of Catherine II. Artist Alexander Roslin / easyArt Then a plan to overthrow her husband from the throne matured in the head of Catherine the Great. She subtly, clearly and prudently organized a palace coup, in which she was helped by the English Ambassador Williams and the Chancellor of the Russian Empire, Count Alexei Bestuzhev.
It soon became clear that both confidants of the future Russian empress had betrayed her. But Catherine did not abandon this plan and found new allies in its implementation. They were the Orlov brothers, adjutant Fyodor Khitrov and sergeant. Foreigners also took part in organizing the palace coup and provided sponsorship for bribery the right people.
Portrait of Catherine II on horseback. Artist Virgilius Eriksen / Peterhof In 1762, the Empress was ready to take an irrevocable step - she went to St. Petersburg, where the guards units, who by that time were already dissatisfied, swore allegiance to her military policy Emperor Peter III. After this, he abdicated the throne, was taken into custody and soon died under unknown circumstances. 2 months later, on September 22, 1762, Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was crowned in Moscow and became the Russian Empress Catherine II.
Reign and achievements of Catherine II
From the very first day of her ascension to the throne, the queen clearly outlined her royal tasks and began to implement them. She quickly formulated and carried out reforms in the Russian Empire, which affected all spheres of life of the population. Catherine the Great pursued a policy that took into account the interests of all classes, which won the support of her subjects.
Portrait of Catherine II. Unknown artist / Yekaterinburg Museum of Fine Arts To pull the Russian Empire out of the financial quagmire, the tsarina carried out secularization and took away the lands of churches, turning them into secular property. This made it possible to pay off the army and replenish the treasury of the empire by 1 million peasant souls. At the same time, she managed to quickly establish trade in Russia, doubling the number industrial enterprises in the country. Thanks to this, the amount of state revenue increased 4 times, the empire was able to maintain a large army and begin the development of the Urals.
As for Catherine’s domestic policy, today it is called “enlightened absolutism”, because the empress tried to achieve the “common good” for society and the state. The absolutism of Catherine II was marked by the adoption of new legislation, which was adopted on the basis of the “Order of Empress Catherine,” containing 526 articles.
Empress Catherine II. Artist Dmitry Levitsky / Tretyakov Gallery They spoke about the principles that were to guide the deputies-lawmakers, primarily about the ideas of Charles de Montesquieu, Jean Leron d'Alembert and other educators. The Code of Laws was developed by the Statutory Commission specially convened in 1766.
Because of political activity The queen still had a “pro-noble” character; from 1773 to 1775 she was faced with a peasant uprising led by. The peasant war engulfed almost the entire empire, but the state army suppressed the rebellion and arrested Pugachev, who was subsequently beheaded. This was the only decree on the death penalty that the empress issued during her reign.
In 1775, Catherine the Great carried out a territorial division of the empire and expanded Russia into 11 provinces. During her reign, Russia acquired Azov, Crimea, Kuban, as well as parts of Belarus, Poland, Lithuania and western part Volyn. Catherine's provincial reform, according to researchers, had a number of significant shortcomings.
Catherine II's departure for falconry. Artist Valentin Serov / State Russian Museum When forming provinces, the national composition of the population was not taken into account; moreover, its implementation required an increase in budget expenditures. At the same time, elected courts were introduced in the country, which dealt with criminal and civil cases.
In 1785, the Empress organized local government in cities. By decree, Catherine II established a clear set of noble privileges - she freed nobles from paying taxes, compulsory military service, and gave them the right to own lands and peasants. Thanks to the empress, a secondary education system was introduced in Russia, for which special closed schools, institutes for girls, and educational homes were built. In addition, Catherine founded Russian Academy, which is among the leading European scientific bases.
During her reign, Catherine paid special attention to the development of agriculture. It was considered a fundamental industry for Russia, which influenced the economic development of the state. The increase in arable land led to an increase in grain exports.
Portrait of Catherine II in Russian attire. Artist Stefano Torelli / State Historical Museum Under her, for the first time in Russia, bread began to be sold, which the population bought with paper money, also introduced into use by the empress. Also among the valor of the monarch is the introduction of vaccination in Russia, which made it possible to prevent deadly epidemics in the country, thereby maintaining the number of citizens.
During her reign, Catherine the Second survived 6 wars, in which she received the desired trophies in the form of lands. Her foreign policy is considered by many to this day to be immoral and hypocritical. But the woman managed to go down in Russian history as a powerful monarch who became an example of patriotism for future generations of the country, despite the absence of even a drop of Russian blood in her.
Personal life
The personal life of Catherine II is vibrant and arouses interest to this day. Already in her youth, the Empress became committed to “free love,” which turned out to be a consequence of her unsuccessful marriage with Peter III.
National Museum of Sweden The romance novels of Catherine the Great are marked by a series of scandals, and the list of her favorites contains 23 names, as evidenced by the research of authoritative “Catherine scholars.” The institution of favoritism had a negative impact on the government structure of that time. He contributed to corruption, poor personnel decisions and the decline of morals.
The most famous lovers of the monarch were Alexander Lanskoy, Grigory Potemkin and Platon Zubov, who at the age of 20 became the favorite of 60-year-old Catherine the Great. Researchers do not rule out that the empress’s love affairs were her kind of weapon, with the help of which she carried out her activities on the royal throne.
Tretyakov Gallery It is known that Catherine the Great had three children - a son from her legal husband Peter III - Pavel Petrovich, Alexei Bobrinsky, born from Orlov, and a daughter Anna Petrovna, who died of illness at the age of one.
The empress devoted the twilight years of her life to caring for her grandchildren and heirs, as she had strained relations with her son Paul. She wanted to transfer power and the crown to her eldest grandson, whom she personally prepared for the royal throne. But her plans were not destined to happen, since her legal heir learned about his mother’s plan and carefully prepared for the fight for the throne. In the future, the empress’s beloved grandson nevertheless ascended the throne, becoming Emperor Alexander I.
Hermitage Catherine the Great tried to remain unpretentious in everyday life; she was indifferent to fashionable clothes, but was fond of needlework, wood and bone carving. Every day she devoted her afternoon time to her favorite activity. The Empress herself embroidered, knitted, and once personally made a pattern for a suit for her grandson Alexander. The queen had a literary gift, which she realized in writing plays for the court theater.
Despite the fact that in her youth the Empress converted to Orthodoxy, she was interested in the ideas of Buddhism. Catherine established the position of head of the Lamaist Church of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. The ruler was officially recognized as the embodiment of the enlightened being of the Eastern religion - White Tara.
Death
The death of Catherine II occurred according to the new style on November 17, 1796. The Empress died from a severe stroke; she tossed about in agony for 12 hours and, without regaining consciousness, passed away in agony. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The tombstone bears an epitaph written by herself.
Yuri Zlotya After ascending the throne, Paul I destroyed most of his mother's heritage. In addition, the external debt of the state was discovered, which became a burden on subsequent rulers and was repaid only in late XIX centuries.
Memory
More than 15 monuments were erected in honor of the empress in St. Petersburg, Simferopol, Sevastopol, Krasnodar and other cities of the Russian Empire. Later, many of the pedestals were lost. Since Catherine contributed to the spread paper money, later her portrait adorned the 100-ruble banknote during the reign.
The memory of the great empress was repeatedly immortalized in literary works Russian and foreign writers - and others.
The image of Catherine the Great is often used in world cinema. Her bright and rich biography is taken as the basis for scenarios, since the great Russian Empress Catherine II had a turbulent life filled with intrigues, conspiracies, love affairs and the struggle for the throne, but at the same time she became a worthy ruler.
Yulia Snigir.
Movies
- 1934 – “The Loose Empress”
- 1953 – “Admiral Ushakov”
- 1986 – “Mikhailo Lomonosov”
- 1990 – “The Tsar’s Hunt”
- 1992 – “Dreams about Russia”
- 2002 – “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”
- 2015 – “Great”
- 2018 – “Bloody Lady”
A foreigner by birth, she sincerely loved Russia and cared about the welfare of her subjects. Having taken the throne through a palace coup, the wife of Peter III tried to implement the best ideas of the European Enlightenment into the life of Russian society. At the same time, Catherine opposed the outbreak of the Great French Revolution (1789-1799), being indignant at the execution of the French king Louis XVI of Bourbon (January 21, 1793) and predetermining Russia's participation in the anti-French coalition of European states in early XIX V.
Catherine II Alekseevna (nee Sophia Augusta Frederica, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst) was born on May 2, 1729 in the German city of Stettin (modern territory of Poland), and died on November 17, 1796 in St. Petersburg.
The daughter of Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johanna Elisabeth (née Princess Holstein-Gottorp), she was related to the royal houses of Sweden, Prussia and England. She received a home education, the course of which, in addition to dancing and foreign languages also included the basics of history, geography and theology.
In 1744, she and her mother were invited to Russia by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, and baptized according to Orthodox custom under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Soon her engagement to Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III) was announced, and in 1745 they got married.
Catherine understood that the court loved Elizabeth, did not accept many of the oddities of the heir to the throne, and, perhaps, after Elizabeth’s death, it was she who, with the support of the court, would ascend to the Russian throne. Catherine studied the works of figures of the French Enlightenment, as well as jurisprudence, which had a significant impact on her worldview. In addition, she made as much effort as possible to study, and perhaps understand, history and traditions Russian state. Because of her desire to know everything Russian, Catherine won the love of not only the court, but also the whole of St. Petersburg.
After the death of Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine’s relationship with her husband, never distinguished by warmth and understanding, continued to deteriorate, taking on clearly hostile forms. Fearing arrest, Ekaterina, with the support of the Orlov brothers, N.I. Panina, K.G. Razumovsky, E.R. Dashkova, on the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in Oranienbaum, carried out a palace coup. Peter III was exiled to Ropsha, where he soon died under mysterious circumstances.
Having begun her reign, Catherine tried to implement the ideas of the Enlightenment and organize the state in accordance with the ideals of this most powerful European intellectual movement. Almost from the first days of her reign, she actively participated in government affairs, proposing reforms that are significant for society. On her initiative, a reform of the Senate was carried out in 1763, which significantly increased the efficiency of its work. Wanting to strengthen the dependence of the church on the state, and to provide additional land resources to the nobility supporting the policy of reforming society, Catherine carried out the secularization of church lands (1754). The unification of administration of the territories of the Russian Empire began, and the hetmanate in Ukraine was abolished.
A champion of the Enlightenment, Catherine creates a number of new educational institutions, including for women (Smolny Institute, Catherine School).
In 1767, the Empress convened a commission, which included representatives of all segments of the population, including peasants (except serfs), to compose a new code - a code of laws. To guide the work of the Legislative Commission, Catherine wrote “The Mandate,” the text of which was based on the writings of educational authors. This document, in essence, was the liberal program of her reign.
After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. and the suppression of the uprising under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev, a new stage of Catherine’s reforms began, when the empress independently developed the most important legislative acts and, taking advantage of the unlimited power of her power, put them into practice.
In 1775, a manifesto was issued that allowed the free opening of any industrial enterprises. In the same year, a provincial reform was carried out, which introduced a new administrative-territorial division of the country, which remained until 1917. In 1785, Catherine issued letters of grant to the nobility and cities.
In the foreign policy arena, Catherine II continued to pursue an offensive policy in all directions - northern, western and southern. The results foreign policy One can name the strengthening of Russia's influence on European affairs, three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, strengthening of positions in the Baltic states, annexation of Crimea, Georgia, participation in countering the forces of revolutionary France.
The contribution of Catherine II to Russian history is so significant that her memory is preserved in many works of our culture.
Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name Catherine the Great. Her reign became a new era in the history of Russia.
The beginning of Catherine II's reign was difficult, primarily in moral terms. No matter how unpopular Peter III was in Russia, he was a legitimate (by God's grace) sovereign, and, moreover, the grandson of Peter the Great, albeit insufficient. Catherine was a purebred German who, in the eyes of society, usurped the ancient throne of the Moscow kings. The role of Catherine II in the murder of her husband was also unclear.
First of all, Catherine II hastened with the coronation, which was supposed to legitimize her accession to the throne. The solemn ceremony took place on September 22, 1762 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Catherine generously rewarded everyone who contributed to her victory. The main participants in the coup (40 people) received ranks, land holdings with serfs and large sums of money. The Empress ordered the return from exile of those who “innocently” suffered, including the former Grand Chancellor Count Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the former Prosecutor General Prince Shakhovsky.
Wanting to win over the influential Orthodox clergy in Russia, Catherine II canceled the decree of Peter III on the confiscation of land property and peasants from monasteries. True, having strengthened her position, the empress, already in 1764, nevertheless took away 990 thousand peasants from the monasteries in favor of the state. The former monastic peasants (there were about 1 million male souls) began to be called economic, since the College of Economy was created to manage them. The number of monasteries in Russia decreased from 881 to 385.
Acting carefully, avoiding dangerous conflicts, Catherine II made it clear from the very beginning that she did not intend to give up autocratic power. She rejected the Count's idea N.I. Panina on the establishment of the Permanent Imperial Council consisting of four secretaries of state, who were supposed to decide all the most important state affairs. In this case, Catherine would only have the right to approve decisions made. Panin’s project reflected oligarchic the aristocracy's hopes for limiting autocratic power, which did not suit Catherine II at all.
At the same time, Panin proposed dividing the governing Senate into six departments, which led to a weakening of the role of this higher institution in favor of the Permanent Imperial Council. Catherine II skillfully took advantage of this proposal from Panin. In December 1763, the Empress carried out Senate reform, dividing it into six departments, two of which were to be in Moscow, and four in St. Petersburg. Thus, the governing Senate lost its former political role, turning into a bureaucratic clerical superstructure over the central institutions of the empire. As a result of the reform, autocratic power was strengthened. “But to Catherine II,” wrote S.M. Solovyov, “it took many years of skillful, firm and happy rule to acquire that authority, that charm that she produced in Russia and in Europe as a whole, in order to force her to recognize the legitimacy of her power.”
“Manifesto on freedom for the nobility” (1762) and “Charter granted to the nobility”(1785) Catherine II finally consolidated the privileges of the nobility. The nobles were exempt from taxes and duties. Noble land ownership increased noticeably. State and palace peasants, as well as uninhabited lands, were distributed to the landowners. The period of the reign of Catherine II in historical science was called the golden age of the Russian nobility.
By the time of her accession to the throne, Catherine II was well acquainted with the liberal ideas of European philosophical, political and economic thought. Even in her youth, she read the works of French educators - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, D'Alembert- and considered herself their student. In 1763, Catherine began correspondence with Voltaire, which continued until 1777, that is, almost until the death of the famous French educator. In letters to Voltaire, Catherine told the “teacher” about activities for the benefit of her subjects and about military events, and Voltaire showered the “student” with flattery and compliments. Catherine II emphasized that the book of the French educator Montesquieu became her guide in politics. In countries Western Europe they started talking about the “great Semiramis of the north.”
Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine developed a certain idea of what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state. Combined with knowledge of Russian reality, these ideas influenced the formation political program empress. How Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch, which she sincerely considered herself to be, can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation that is to be governed. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors” (“Notes”).
Since ideologically this program, and therefore Catherine’s internal policy, was based on the principles of the Enlightenment, this period of Russian history itself received the name “enlightened absolutism” in the literature (E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky).
This policy was typical for countries with a relatively slow development of capitalist relations, where the nobility retained its political rights and economic privileges. Time enlightened absolutism usually refer to several decades of European history before the French Revolution of 1789.
In the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary we read the following definition: “ Enlightened absolutism- the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in the 2nd half of the 18th century, was expressed in the destruction “from above” and in the transformation of the most outdated feudal institutions (abolition of some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state, reforms - peasant, judicial, school education, softening of censorship, etc.). Representatives of enlightened absolutism - Joseph II in Austria, Frederick II in Prussia, Catherine II in Russia (until the early 70s of the 18th century), etc., using the popularity of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, portrayed their activities as a “union of philosophers and sovereigns” . Enlightened absolutism was aimed at establishing the dominance of the nobility, although some reforms contributed to the development of the capitalist system.”
So, enlightened absolutism is characterized by such events in which the nobles and the state itself were interested, but which at the same time contributed to the development of a new capitalist structure. An important feature of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the desire of monarchs to ease the severity of social contradictions by improving the political superstructure.
The largest event of enlightened absolutism was the convening in 1767 of the commission on the drafting of a new code (Laid Commission). It should be noted that the convening of the Statutory Commission was preceded by Catherine II's study tours around Russia. “After Peter the Great, Catherine was the first empress who undertook travel around Russia for government purposes” (S.M. Soloviev).
Catherine II decided to give Russia a legislative code based on the principles of new philosophy and science discovered by the modern Age of Enlightenment.
As a guiding document for the commission, the Empress prepared the “Order,” which consisted of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles. Almost a quarter of the text of the “Nakaz” consisted of quotations from the works of enlighteners (Beccaria, Bielfeld, Montesquieu, Justi). These quotes were carefully selected, and “Nakaz”, thus, was a complete work in which the need for strong autocratic power in Russia and the class structure of Russian society was proved. Catherine’s commission failed to draw up a new code of laws, since it was difficult to bring the old legislation into agreement, on the one hand, with Catherine’s liberal “Order” (built on book theories, without taking into account real facts Russian life), and on the other - with conflicting needs, wishes and many separate orders from different groups population.
However, the work of the Commission was not in vain. The content of local orders and the judgments of deputies gave the government rich material to familiarize itself with the needs and wishes of different groups of the population, and it could use these materials in the future in its reform activities.
It is unlikely that those historians are right who see in the convening of the Statutory Commission a demagogic farce played out by Catherine II. It is impossible to call the Legislative Commission the beginning of Russian parliamentarism. In the specific conditions of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II made an attempt to modernize the country and create a legitimate autocratic monarchy (A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, I.G. Georgieva).
The curtailment of the policy of enlightened absolutism was influenced by two events of the 18th century: the peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev in Russia and the Great French revolution in Europe. In Russia, the last attempt to implement the ideas of the European Enlightenment was the activity of Alexander I (I.G. Kislitsyn).
When assessing the reign of Catherine II, one must keep in mind that the empress had to act not according to a pre-thought-out and planned transformation program, but to consistently take on the tasks that life put forward. Hence the impression of some chaos in her reign. Even if this is so, it is not due to the whims of frequently changing favorites. Lists of official favorites compiled by various historians include from 12 to 15 people. Some of them, primarily G.A. Potemkin, became outstanding statesmen, others were in her chambers in the position of beloved dogs. Undoubtedly, such people influenced the policy of the state, but only to the extent that this was allowed by the empress herself, who never gave up even a particle of her autocratic power.
Results of the reign of Catherine II.
- Imperial events in foreign and domestic policy.
- Strengthening absolutism by reforming government institutions and a new administrative structure of the state, protecting the monarchy from any attacks.
- Socio-economic measures for the further “Europeanization” of the country and the final formation and strengthening of the nobility.
- Liberal educational initiatives, care for education, literature and the arts.
- Unpreparedness Russian society not only to the abolition of serfdom, but even to more moderate reforms.
According to S.V. Bushuev, during the reign of Catherine II there was a “... discrepancy between the external forms and internal conditions introduced from above,” the “soul” and “body” of Russia, and hence all the contradictions of the 18th century: the split of the nation, the split of the people and the authorities, the authorities and the intelligentsia created by it , the split of culture into popular and “official”, Pushkin’s insoluble dilemma about “enlightenment” and “slavery”. All this is relevant to Catherine because it explains the underlying reasons for her impressive successes when she acted “from above” in the Petrine style, and her amazing impotence as soon as she tried to get support “from below” in a European manner (Laid Commission).
If Peter did not think about all these contradictions or, rather, simply did not notice them, then Catherine was already beginning to understand, but unable to resolve them, she was forced to pretend and be a hypocrite: an enlightened empress - and the first landowner, Voltaire's correspondent - and an unlimited ruler, a supporter of humanity - and a restorer of the death penalty... In a word, according to Pushkin’s definition, “Tartuffe in a skirt and crown.” But the lie here is most likely not for deception as such, but for self-defense, not so much for others, but for oneself, who wants to combine “enlightenment” and “slavery.”
Russian Empress Catherine II the Great was born on May 2 (April 21, old style), 1729 in the city of Stettin in Prussia (now the city of Szczecin in Poland), died on November 17 (November 6, old style), 1796 in St. Petersburg (Russia). The reign of Catherine II lasted more than three and a half decades, from 1762 to 1796. It was filled with many events in internal and external affairs, the implementation of plans that continued what was done under Peter the Great. The period of her reign is often called the “golden age” of the Russian Empire.
By Catherine II's own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at catching every sensible thought and using it for her own purposes. She skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine’s time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. Among them are the great Russian commander Alexander Suvorov, Field Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, satirist Denis Fonvizin, outstanding Russian poet, Pushkin’s predecessor Gabriel Derzhavin, Russian historian-historiographer, writer, creator of “History of the Russian State” Nikolai Karamzin, writer, philosopher, poet Alexander Radishchev, outstanding Russian violinist and composer, founder of Russian violin culture Ivan Khandoshkin, conductor, teacher, violinist, singer, one of the creators of Russian national opera Vasily Pashkevich, composer of secular and church music, conductor, teacher Dmitry Bortyansky.
In her memoirs, Catherine II characterized the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign:
Finances were depleted. The army did not receive pay for 3 months. Trade was in decline, because many of its branches were given over to monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. War Department was plunged into debt; the sea barely held on, being in extreme neglect. The clergy was dissatisfied with the taking of lands from him. Justice was sold at auction, and laws were followed only in cases where they favored the powerful.
The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:
The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.
Based on the assigned tasks, Catherine II carried out active reform activities. Her reforms affected almost all areas of life.
Convinced of the unsuitable management system, Catherine II carried out a Senate reform in 1763. The Senate was divided into 6 departments, losing its significance as the body that manages the state apparatus, and became the highest administrative and judicial institution.
Faced with financial difficulties, Catherine II in 1763-1764 carried out secularization (turning into secular property) church lands. 500 monasteries were abolished, and 1 million peasant souls were transferred to the treasury. Due to this, the state treasury was significantly replenished. This made it possible to ease the financial crisis in the country and pay off the army, which had not received a salary for a long time. The influence of the Church on the life of society has decreased significantly.
From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine II began to strive to achieve the internal structure of the state. She believed that injustices in the state could be eradicated with the help of good laws. And she decided to adopt new legislation instead of the Council Code of Alexei Mikhailovich of 1649, which would take into account the interests of all classes. For this purpose, the Statutory Commission was convened in 1767. 572 deputies represented the nobility, merchants, and Cossacks. Catherine tried to incorporate the ideas of Western European thinkers about a fair society into the new legislation. Having revised their works, she compiled the famous “Order of Empress Catherine” for the Commission. The "Mandate" consisted of 20 chapters, divided into 526 articles. It is about the need for strong autocratic power in Russia and the class structure of Russian society, about the rule of law, about the relationship between law and morality, about the dangers of torture and corporal punishment. The commission worked for more than two years, but its work was not crowned with success, since the nobility and the deputies themselves from other classes stood guard only for their rights and privileges.
In 1775, Catherine II made a clearer territorial division of the empire. The territory began to be divided into administrative units with a certain number of taxable (who paid taxes) population. The country was divided into 50 provinces with a population of 300-400 thousand each, the provinces into districts of 20-30 thousand inhabitants. The city was an independent administrative unit. Elective courts and “trial chambers” were introduced to deal with criminal and civil cases. Finally, “conscientious” courts for minors and the sick.
In 1785, the “Charter of Grant to Cities” was published. It determined the rights and responsibilities of the urban population and the management system in cities. Residents of the city elected a self-government body every 3 years - the General City Duma, the mayor and judges.
Since the time of Peter the Great, when all the nobility owed lifelong service to the state, and the peasantry the same service to the nobility, gradual changes have occurred. Catherine the Great, among other reforms, also wanted to bring harmony to the life of the classes. In 1785, the “Charter of Grant to the Nobility” was published, which was a code, a collection of noble privileges formalized by law. From now on, the nobility was sharply separated from other classes. The freedom of the nobility from paying taxes and from compulsory service was confirmed. Nobles could only be tried by a noble court. Only nobles had the right to own land and serfs. Catherine forbade the subjecting of nobles to corporal punishment. She believed that this would help the Russian nobility get rid of the servile mentality and acquire personal dignity.
These letters were ordered social structure Russian society, divided into five classes: nobility, clergy, merchants, philistines ("middle class of people") and serfs.
As a result of the educational reform in Russia during the reign of Catherine II, a secondary education system was created. In Russia, closed schools, educational homes, institutes for girls, nobles, and townspeople were created, in which experienced teachers were involved in the education and upbringing of boys and girls. In the province, a network of people's non-class two-class schools was created in counties and four-class schools in provincial cities. A classroom lesson system was introduced in schools (uniform start and end dates for classes), teaching methods and educational literature were developed, and unified curricula were created. By the end of the 18th century, there were 550 educational institutions in Russia with a total number of 60-70 thousand people.
Under Catherine, the systematic development of women's education began; in 1764, the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens and the Educational Society of Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. The Russian Academy was founded in 1783.
Under Catherine II, the population of Russia increased significantly, hundreds of new cities were built, the treasury increased fourfold, industry and Agriculture- Russia began to export bread for the first time.
Under her, paper money was introduced for the first time in Russia. On her initiative, the first smallpox vaccination was carried out in Russia (she herself set an example and became the first to be vaccinated).
Under Catherine II, as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars (1768-1774, 1787-1791), Russia finally gained a foothold in the Black Sea, and the lands called Novorossiya were annexed: the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region. Accepted Eastern Georgia under Russian citizenship (1783). During the reign of Catherine II, as a result of the so-called partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Russia returned the Western Russian lands seized by the Poles.
The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources
