Topographic maps, measurements and constructions on them. Soviet military maps Free Topographic maps 200

The concept of nomenclature in topography is completely different from its other meanings in our everyday life. This is a set or list of names, terms used in any branch of science, technology, art, etc., this is also a circle of officials appointed by a higher authority. The semantic concept of nomenclature in topography is based on the fact that the adopted provisions must ensure unambiguous designation of topographic sheets or any other maps of various scales.
Nomenclature is a system for designating map sheets of different scales.
Layout - a system of dividing the Earth's surface by meridians and parallels. Each sheet is limited by a frame.
The basis for dividing cards into sheets in our country is international graphics maps at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (Fig. 5.1).

Rice. 5.1. Layout and nomenclature
topographic maps at a scale of 1:1000000.

The division into rows (belts) by parallels is carried out from the equator every 4º latitude. The rows are designated by letters of the Latin alphabet: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W. Columns within their boundaries coincide with the 6º zones of the Gaussian projection, but they are numbered from the meridian ±180º to the east. Thus, the column number differs from the zone number by 30 units in one direction or another. Columns are designated (by numbers) Arabic numerals.

Rice. 5.2. Layout and nomenclature of topographical
maps of the CIS countries at a scale of 1:1000000.

Let’s assume that the column number in the international chart is indicated by the number 47. Then the number of the corresponding Gaussian zone will be 47 – 30 = 17. If the column number is less than 30, then to determine the zone number, add 30 to the column number. The nomenclature of a topographic map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 is composed of the Latin letter of the row and the Arabic numeral of the column number . For example, S-47. For cards southern hemisphere after the nomenclature in brackets indicate (Yu.P.).

Layout of map sheets at a scale of 1:500,000 is made by dividing the middle meridian and the middle parallel of a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 into four parts, which are designated by capital letters of the Russian (Ukrainian) alphabet. Nomenclature of map sheets at scale 1:500,000 consists of the nomenclature of the 1:1,000,000 scale map sheet of which it is a part and the corresponding letter.

Layout of sheets of maps at scales 1:200,000 And 1:100 000 is made by dividing each sheet of a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 by meridians and parallels, respectively, into 36 and 144 parts (Fig. 5.3). Sheets of maps at a scale of 1:200,000 are numbered with Roman numerals, and for a scale of 1:100,000 - with Arabic numerals in rows from west to east. The nomenclature of map sheets of the indicated scales consists of the nomenclature of the corresponding million sheet and its own number, which for map sheets of scales 1:200,000 and 1:100,000 is indicated to the right of the nomenclature of the million sheet.

Rice. 5.3. Layout and nomenclature of sheets of maps at a scale of 1:500,000,
1:200,000, 1:100,000 in a map sheet with a scale of 1:1,000,000

1:50,000 scale map sheets obtained by dividing map sheets at a scale of 1:100,000 into four parts (Fig. 5.4), designated by capital letters of the Russian (Ukrainian) alphabet. The dimensions of the sheet are 10′ in latitude and 15′ in longitude.

Rice. 5.4 . Layout and nomenclature of sheets of maps of scale 1:50,000, 1:25,000 in a sheet of map of scale 1:100,000.

The nomenclature of these sheets is formed by attaching the corresponding letter to the nomenclature of a 1:100,000 scale sheet, for example N-37-4-A. (Fig. 5.4)

1:25,000 scale map sheets obtained by dividing sheets of a map at a scale of 1:50,000 into four parts (Fig. 5.4), each of which is designated by lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet. The dimensions of these sheets are 5′ in latitude, 7′30″ in longitude, and the nomenclature is supplemented with the corresponding letter: N-37-4-В-в.

A 1:25,000 scale map sheet is divided into four map sheets scale 1:10,000, each of which measures 2′30″ in latitude and 3′45″ in longitude. They are designated by Arabic numerals, which are indicated after the nomenclature of the 1:25,000 scale map sheet of which they are part, for example N-37-134-B-v-2.

Layout of map sheets at a scale of 1:5,000 is made by dividing map sheets at a scale of 1:100,000 into 256 parts (16 rows in latitude and longitude). The sheets are numbered in Arabic numerals in rows from west to east. The size of each sheet is 1′15″ in latitude, 1′53.5″ in longitude. The nomenclature of these sheets is formed by attaching the corresponding number in brackets to the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:100,000, for example: N-37-134-(16).

Rice. 5.5. Layout of map sheets at a scale of 1:5,000

Map sheets scale 1:2 000 are obtained by dividing sheets of a map at a scale of 1:5,000 into nine parts and are designated in lowercase letters of the Russian alphabet, for example N-37-134-(16-ж). The size of each sheet is 25″ in latitude and 37.5″ in longitude.

Topographic surveys on a large scale in areas less than 20 km 2 are carried out in private rectangular coordinate systems, not related to the geographical system. The layout of plan sheets in these cases is carried out not by meridians and parallels, but by grid lines. The sheets are in the shape of squares with dimensions of 40 × 40 cm for plans at a scale of 1:5,000 and 50 × 50 cm for plans at a scale of 1:2,000 - 1:500. The layout is based on a plan sheet at a scale of 1:5,000, indicated by Arabic numerals.
A plan sheet at a scale of 1:5,000 corresponds to 4 sheets in scale 1:2 000 , denoted by capital letters of the Russian alphabet (Fig. 5.6).
A plan sheet on a scale of 1:2,000 is divided into 4 sheets of plans scale 1:1000 , designated by Roman numerals, or 16 sheets of plans scale 1:500 , designated by Arabic numerals (Fig. 5.6).

Rice. 5.6 . Layout and nomenclature of sheets of maps at scales 1:2000, 1:1000, 1:500

In Fig. 5.7 presents the general scheme of layout and nomenclatures of topographic maps adopted in Ukraine.
Other systems for designating large-scale plans are also possible when surveying various objects. In these cases, outside the plan sheets, the accepted layout and numbering schemes are indicated.

Rice. 5.7 . General scheme of layout and nomenclatures of topographic maps, adopted in Ukraine.

Due to the fact that when moving towards the north or south pole, the parts projected onto the plane earth's surface decrease in longitude, then the sheets of topographic maps become narrow and inconvenient for practical use. Sheets of topographic maps for latitudes 60º – 76º are published double in longitude, and for latitudes 76º – 88º – quadruple in longitude. For regions of the Arctic and Antarctic located at latitudes from 88º to 90º, large-scale maps are published in azimuthal projection.

5.2. DETERMINATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES OF THE CORNERS OF THE FRAME OF A TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SHEET

The system of layout and nomenclature of map sheets makes it possible to determine the geographic coordinates of the corners of the frame of any sheet of topographic maps of the entire scale range, as well as, using the geographic coordinates of a point, to find the nomenclature of a map sheet of any scale on which this point is located.
Southern latitude The frames of a map sheet with a scale of 1:1,000,000 can be determined using Table 5.1.

Numbers and designations of the northern hemisphere zones

Table.5.1

If there is no table for the designation of belts, then first determine the serial number of the Latin letter of the belt (ordinal number 1 corresponds to the Latin letter A, 2 - B, 3 - C, ...). Then the belt number is multiplied by 4 and the value of the geographical sprat is obtained φ northern parallel of the sheet. Reducing this value by 4. obtains the latitude of the southern parallel of the sheet frame.
To determine the longitudes of the meridians that bound the sheet, it should be borne in mind that the Greenwich meridian is taken as the starting point for counting longitudes, and the beginning of counting the columns comes from the meridian having a longitude of 180. Therefore, for columns with numbers 31-60 (east of the Greenwich meridian), the column number is reduced by 30, multiplied by 6º and the value is determined geographic longitude eastern meridian leaf. By decreasing this value by 6º, the longitude of the western meridian of the sheet is obtained.

Example. For a map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 with nomenclature N-37, determine the geographic coordinates (Fig. 5.8).
Solution:

the serial number of the letter N in the Latin alphabet is 14;
by serial number we determine the latitude of the northern parallel 14 × 4 = 56º
by decreasing the value of northern latitude by 4, we obtain the latitude of the southern parallel of the sheet frame 56º – 4º = 52º
determine the longitude of the eastern meridian (37 – 30) × 6º = 42º
by decreasing the longitude of the eastern meridian by 6, we obtain the longitude of the western meridian 42º – 6º = 36º

Rice. 5.8. Geographic coordinates of frame corners
map sheet at scale 1:1,000,000 with nomenclature N-37

5.3. DETERMINATION OF THE NOMENCLATURE OF MAP SHEETS BY GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES OF OBJECTS

Using the geographic coordinates of a point, you can determine the nomenclature of any sheet of the topographic map on which this point is located
For this it is necessary:

determine the number of the belt in which the desired leaf is located by dividing the latitude in degrees plus four by 4.

Attention! To obtain a remainder that is an integer number of degrees, division should be performed without using a calculator.

Using the belt number from Table 5.1, determine belt designation (Latin letter).

The Latin letter of the belt can be calculated using a computer. To do this, enter the formula in Microsoft Excel spreadsheets:
=CHAR( belt number+64)

determine the column number by dividing the longitude in degrees plus six by 6 and adding 30 to the quotient;
Based on the remainder (degrees and minutes), determine the nomenclature of sheets of maps on a larger scale.

Example.
Object coordinates: latitude 53°50′N; longitude 40°30′E.
Determine the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:500,000.

Solution.
Belt number (row) (53 + 4) : 4 = 14 integers.
We will use 1º in the remainder of the division and 50′ of latitude (a total remainder of 1°50′) to determine the nomenclature of a map sheet on a larger scale.
14 integers is the serial number of the row. The number 14 corresponds to the Latin letter N. The symbol N corresponds to the belt of a map at a scale of 1:1,000,000.
Column number (40 + 6) : 6 + 30 = 37.
Longitude remainder 4° + 30" = 4°30".

The nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000 will be N – 37.

We draw up a scheme for dividing the sheet 1:1,000,000 into equal parts by longitude and latitude (Fig. 5.9).

Figure 5.9. Determination of the nomenclature of map sheet 1: 500,000

We count from the southern border of the scheme 1°50′ (latitudinal remainder) and from the western border 4°30′ (longitude remainder). We get the intersection of the lines at the quarter, designated by the capital letter G. Thus, the required nomenclature for a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:500,000 will be N-37-G.

To determine the nomenclature of maps at a scale of 1:200,000, the method for determining the trapezoid number is the same as for a scale of 1:500,000.

Figure 5.10. Determination of the nomenclature of map sheet 1: 200,000

At the intersection of the dotted lines (Figure 5.10) we see the Roman numeral XXIII. We add the Roman numeral to the nomenclature of sheet 1: 1,000,000 and we get the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:200,000 N-37-XXIII.
By sequentially drawing up schemes for dividing sheets with the designation of their coordinates, it is possible to determine the nomenclature of sheets of maps on a larger scale.

5.4. DETERMINING THE NOMENCLATURE OF ADJACENT MAP SHEETS

To select the required sheets of maps, prefabricated tables are used - small-scale schematic maps, which show the layout and nomenclature of maps. To select a sheet, a given route or area is marked on a prefabricated table of the appropriate scale and, according to the layout indicated on the prefabricated table, the nomenclatures of the sheets included in the intended area are written out.

Rice. 5.11. Fragment of a prefabricated table of sheets
maps scale 1:100,000

In the absence of a prefabricated table, the nomenclature of map sheets is determined using layout diagrams made independently. In this case, two cases are possible. If the nomenclature of one or several sheets is known and it is necessary to determine the nomenclatures of a number of adjacent sheets, then a diagram for laying out maps of the appropriate scale is carried out, these sheets are marked on it and the nomenclature of adjacent sheets is written down.
If you have to determine the nomenclature of map sheets for a new area, then you need to use some geographic map to determine the geographic coordinates of an object located in the desired area, use them to find its position on the layout diagram of map sheets at a scale of 1:1,000,000 and write down the nomenclature of this sheet . Then, according to the layout scheme for map sheets of the appropriate scale, taking into account the latitude and longitude of the corners of the map sheet at a scale of 1:1,000,000, the position of the object is found according to its geographic coordinates and the nomenclature of the required sheets is written down.

Rice. 5.12. Signatures on the sides of the frame of the nomenclatures of adjacent map sheets

The nomenclature of sheets adjacent to the existing map sheet can be recognized by the signatures on the frame on the corresponding side (Fig. 5.12).
Examples of drawing up diagrams of adjacent map sheets are shown in Fig. 5.13, and 5.14.

Rice. 5.13. Scheme of adjacent sheets of a map at a scale of 1:100,000.
Adjacent sheets are highlighted by filling.

Rice. 5.14 Scheme of adjacent sheets of a map at a scale of 1:200,000. Adjacent sheets are highlighted with fill.

5.5. DIGITAL NOMENCLATURE OF CARDS

The digital nomenclature of cards is used to record cards and compile applications for cards using a computer. Each letter representing the belts has been replaced with two-digit numbers. These numbers correspond to the serial number of the belt (or letters in the Latin alphabet). For example, A-01, B-02, C-03, D-04, E-05, F-06,
The digital nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1: 1,000,000 K-38 will be written 11-38.
Each sheet of a map of scale 1: 200,000 is designated by a two-digit number from 01 to 36, and of scale 1: 100,000 - by three digits from 001 to 144. Letters in the nomenclatures of sheets of maps of scales 1: 500,000, 1: 50,000 and 1: 25,000 are replaced by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, respectively.
The digital form of recording nomenclatures for all scales is given in table. 5.2.

Table 5.2.

For the nomenclature of maps of the Southern Hemisphere, the letters YUP are added to the usual nomenclature in brackets, for example M-Z6-A(YUP). Before the digital nomenclature of sheets of maps of the Southern Hemisphere they put the number: 9, for example M-36-A (YuP) has the form 9-13-36-1.

5.6. METHODOLOGY FOR SELECTION OF CARDS USING PREPARATION TABLES

The selection of the necessary map sheets for a given terrain point by coordinates is made using prefabricated tables.
Composite tables are a blank version of a small-scale map, which indicates the layout and nomenclature of the maps. For the convenience of selecting cards, the prefabricated tables are marked with larger than a river, lakes, settlements, borders and other terrain objects.
To select the necessary map sheets for a terrain point given by coordinates, it is necessary to plot this point on the prefabricated table using coordinates and write down the nomenclature of maps of the required scale.
To select maps for a given area, you need to plot the boundaries of the area on a prefabricated table, and then write out the nomenclature of the required map scales.
When gluing sheets of cards into a block, you need to know the nomenclature of the sheets adjacent to each other. To do this, use the layout of the sheets, which is placed under the southern frame of the map. On large-scale maps, the arrangement of sheets is not printed, and the nomenclature of adjacent sheets is indicated on each side of the map frame.
By known coordinates points, you can determine the nomenclature of the map sheet. To do this, you first need to determine the nomenclature of the scale map sheet
1: 1,000,000. The belt of the desired sheet is determined by dividing the latitude of the point in degrees by 4. The column number is determined by dividing the longitude of the point in degrees by 6. 30 is added to the resulting number. In both cases, if the division results in a fractional number, the result must be rounded up. Having received the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1: 1,000,000, you can easily determine the nomenclature of a map sheet of any scale.

Example. The geographical coordinates of the object are given: latitude 56°20′,
longitude 70°30". Determine the nomenclature of the March sheet on a scale of 1: 1,000,000.
Solution.
1. Determine the number of the belt: 56°: 4 = 14, the remainder is 20". We round to a whole number, then the serial number of the belt will be 15, which corresponds to the letter O of the Latin alphabet.
2. Determine the column number: 70°: 6 = 11, the remainder is 4°30", i.e. the desired column will be 12 + 30 = 42.
The nomenclature of a map sheet at scale 1: 1,000,000 will be O-4

Questions and tasks for self-control

Give definitions: “map layout”, “map nomenclature”.
How is the layout done and what symbols are used to make up the nomenclature of scale maps: 1:1,000,000, 1:100,000, 1:50,000, 1:25,000, 1:10,000, 1:5,000, 1:2,000?
How is the layout done and what symbols are used to make up the nomenclature of scale plans: 1:5,000, 1:2,000, 1:1,000, 1:500?
How to determine the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:500,000 if the geographic latitude and longitude of a point (object) are known?
How to find the nomenclature of adjacent and adjacent (corner) sheets using the nomenclature of a map sheet at a scale of 1:200,000?
What is digital card nomenclature?
What is the difference between the nomenclature of maps of the southern hemisphere and the nomenclature of maps of the northern hemisphere?
What are prefabricated tables?
How is the selection of maps for a given area carried out using prefabricated tables?

A program that includes a set of high-quality topographic maps, some of which were created by the Russian General Staff.

Application Soviet military maps includes topographical maps of the world providing continuous coverage around the world at scales of 100K-500K, road, terrain and satellite imagery from Google Maps, as well as a number of open street maps.

A nice feature of the application Soviet military maps for Android is the presence large quantity roads not shown on other maps. It is also worth noting that Soviet maps have lost their relevance for developed countries, since they were created in the 80s and it is advisable to use them only for countries in Africa and Asia. In other cases it is recommended to use google maps and OSM layers.

Download the application Soviet military maps: one of best apps for off-road navigation on your Android.

Security Guarantee

On the FreeSoft website you can download official version Soviet military maps Free without torrents via a direct link from your own server.

All files are checked daily by an antivirus with new signatures!
FreeSoft is a member of the Kaspersky White List program.
Applications marked with the Kaspersky Trusted logo were added to the White List database as not containing viruses or malicious codes. We guarantee that you download unmodified copies of the original files provided to Kaspersky Lab for testing. You can be sure that your device will have the current version of Soviet military maps Free without viruses.
We check the links to the authors’ websites, however, before downloading, we strongly recommend that you read the reviews about the Soviet Military Maps Free application on our website.

Screenshots

1.1. CLASSIFICATION AND PURPOSE OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

Topographic map- a reduced, accurate, detailed and visual image of the earth’s surface with all its objects, made in a certain cartographic projection.

Classification of topographic maps. Soviet topographic maps are national. They are published in the scales indicated in Table. 1.

Table 1

Topographic maps scale 1: 25,000—1: 1,000,000

Map scale (scale size)	Card name	Map scale signature on combat documents	Approximate dimensions of a map sheet at latitude 54°, km	The area covered by a sheet of map at latitude 54°, km
	Twenty five thousandth
(in 1 cm 500 m)	Fifty thousandth
(in 1 cm 1 km)	One hundred thousandth, or kilometer
(1 cm 2 km)	Two hundred thousandth, or two kilometers
(1 cm 5 km)
(1 cm 10 km)	Millionth, or ten-kilometer

Note: The first number of leaf sizes means the extent from north to south; this size is constant for any latitude; the second number is the length from east to west; this size gradually decreases with increasing latitude.

Topographic maps used by the troops are divided into: large-scale (1:25000, 1:50000), medium-scale (1:100000, 1:200000), small-scale (1:500000 I 1,000,000).

Purpose of topographic maps. Topographic maps serve as the main source of information about the area and are used to study it, determine distances and areas, directional angles, coordinates of various objects and solve other measurement problems. They are widely used in troop command and control, and also as a basis for combat graphic documents and special maps. Topographic maps (mainly on a scale of 1: 100,000 and 1: 200,000) serve as the main means of orientation on the march and in battle.

Topographic map scale 1:25,000 is intended for a detailed study of the area, as well as for making accurate measurements and calculations during the construction of engineering structures, crossing water barriers and in other cases.

Topographic maps scale 1: 50,000 and I: 100,000 are intended for the study and assessment of terrain by commanders and staffs when planning and preparing combat operations, command and control of troops in battle, to determine the coordinates of firing (launching) positions, reconnaissance assets and targets, as well as for measurements and calculations during the design and construction of military engineering structures and objects.

Topographic map scale 1:200,000 is intended for studying and assessing terrain when planning and preparing combat operations of all types of the Armed Forces of the USSR and branches of the armed forces, command and control of troops in an operation (battle) and planning the movement of troops.

Topographic maps scale 1: 500,000 and I: 1,000,000 intended for study and evaluation general terrain during preparation and conduct of operations, and are also used by aviation as flight maps.

1.2. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS PROJECTIONS

Map projections— mathematical methods of depicting the surface of the globe on a plane when drawing up maps.

Spherical surfaces do not unfold on a plane without folds and breaks, and for this reason, distortions of lengths, angles, and areas are inevitable on maps. Only in some projections the equality of angles is maintained, but because of this the lengths and areas are significantly distorted, or the equality of the areas is maintained, but the angles and lengths are significantly distorted.

Projection of maps at a scale of 1:25000—1:500,000. Topographic maps of the USSR and many foreign countries are created in the transverse cylindrical Gaussian projection.

The projection of the earth's surface onto a plane in the Gaussian projection is carried out in zones extending from the north pole to the south. The boundaries of the zones are meridians with longitude divisible by 6° (60 zones in total). Within each zone, the earth's surface is projected onto a plane by converting the geographic coordinates of points on the earth's surface into rectangular coordinates on the plane.

The lengths of the lines are preserved only along the axial meridian; in other places they are somewhat exaggerated. The greatest relative distortions of lengths occur at the boundaries of zones and within the USSR reach 1/1000, relative distortions of areas - 1/500. Distortions of distances during graphic measurements on topographic maps are not detected; they are taken into account only when performing special tasks associated with the use of long ranges.

Angles within a small area are not distorted; the outlines of the contours on the ground and on the map are almost similar. Distortion of any directions on a sheet of a map of scale 1:100000 does not exceed 40". All sheets of maps of any scale within one zone can be glued into one block without any folds or tears.

Topographic map projection scale 1: 1,000,000- a modified polyconic projection, adopted as an international projection for maps at a scale of 1: 1000,000. Its main characteristics: the projection of the earth's surface covered by a map sheet is carried out on a separate plane; parallels are depicted as circular arcs, and meridians as straight lines; the greatest distortion of lengths within the sheet reaches 0.14% distortion of angles—up to 7, area distortion—up to 0.08%.

When adding four sheets of a map of scale 1,1000,000, located within latitudes of 40-60°, an angular discontinuity of the order of 20-40 and a linear discontinuity of 2-6 appear. mm.(the non-convergence of the sheets increases towards the poles). No more than 9 sheets are glued into one block without noticeable breaks.

1.3. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS AND CARD DESIGN

Symbols of topographic maps- a system of graphic, alphabetic and numerical symbols, with the help of which the location of terrain objects is shown on the map, and their qualitative and personal characteristics are conveyed.

Conventional signs depicting the same objects on maps of scale 1: 25,000–1: 200,000 are almost identical in their outline and differ only in size.

Conventional signs are divided into large-scale, non-scale and explanatory.

Scale (contour) symbols consist of a contour (external outline of an object); depicted by a solid line or a dotted line, within which the nature of the object is indicated by icons, color or shading.

Linear symbols (a type of large-scale symbols) are used when depicting objects of a linear nature - roads, power lines, boundaries, etc. The location and planned outline of the axis of a linear object are depicted on the map accurately, but their width is significantly exaggerated. For example, a highway symbol on maps at a scale of 1:100,000 exaggerates its width by 8-10 times.

A reconnaissance map is a regular or blank (one-color) map, on which conventional know kami intelligence data. It is published to inform the troops of the results of deciphering aerial photographs (see section 2.4).

1.6. DESIGN AND NOMENCLATURE OF CARDS

Card division is a system of dividing cards into separate sheets. Map nomenclature is a system of numbering and designation of individual sheets. Each sheet is limited by a frame. The sides of the frames of topographic map sheets are parallels and meridians (Table 3).

Table 3

Sizes of topographic map sheets

Map scale	Dimensions of map sheets in degrees		Typical item record
Map scale	by latitude	by longitude	Typical item record
1:1000 000	4°	6°	N— 37
1:500 000	2°	3°	N— 37—B
1:200 000	40"	1°	N— 37 - XVI
1:100000	20"	30"	N- 37—56
1:50 000	10"	15"	N— 37—56—A
1:25 000	5"	7" 30"	N— 37—56—A—6

The nomenclature of topographic maps of the USSR is based on a map of scale 1: 1,000,000.

Nomenclature of a map at a scale of 1:1000,000 (Fig. 2). The entire surface of the Earth is divided by parallels into rows (every 4°), and by meridians into columns (every 6°); the sides of the resulting trapezoids serve as the boundaries of map sheets at a scale of 1: 1000,000. The rows are designated by capital Latin letters from A before V, starting from the equator to both poles, and the columns are in Arabic numerals, starting from the 180° meridian from west to east. The nomenclature of a map sheet consists of a row letter and a column number. For example, a sheet with Moscow is designated N— 37,

Map sheet at scale 1:500,000 is the fourth part of the map sheet 1: 1000,000 and is designated by the nomenclature of the millionth map sheet with the addition of one of the capital letters A, B, C, G of the Russian alphabet, indicating the corresponding quarter (Fig. 3). For example, a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:500000 with the city of Ryazan has the nomenclature N— 37—B.

Map sheet scale 1:200000 formed by dividing the millionth sheet into 36 parts (Fig. 3); its nomenclature consists of the designation of a map sheet at a scale of 1: 1000,000 with the addition of one of the Roman numerals 1, II, III, IV, . . ., XXXVI. For example, a sheet from the city of Ryazan has the nomenclature N— 37—XVI

Rice. 3. Layout and nomenclature of map sheets of scale 1: 500,000 and I: 200,000

1:100,000 scale map sheet obtained by dividing a sheet of a million card into 144 parts (Fig. 4); its nomenclature consists of the designation of a map sheet of 1:1000,000 with the addition of one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ..., 143, 144. For example, a sheet of a hundred thousand map with the city of Ryazan will be ^—37—56.

A map sheet at a scale of 1:50,000 is formed by dividing a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:100,000 into four parts (Fig. 5); its nomenclature consists of the nomenclature of the hundred thousandth card and one of the capital letters A, B, C, G of the Russian alphabet. For example, N—37— 56—A. A map sheet at a scale of 1:25,000 is obtained by dividing a sheet of a map at a scale of 1:50,000 into four parts; its nomenclature is formed from the nomenclature of the fifty thousand card with the addition of one of the lowercase letters a, b, c, d of the Russian alphabet. Example in Fig. 5 N— 37— 56— A— b.

On sheets of maps for the southern hemisphere, the signature in brackets Y.P. is added to the nomenclature of the sheet; for example, A-32-B (Yu.P.).

Sheets of maps located between latitudes 60-76° are doubled in longitude; for example, a sheet of a map with a scale of 1: 1000,000 in longitude will have a length of not 6, but 12°.

The double sheets of the million card are indicated by indicating the row (letter) and two corresponding columns (odd and subsequent even number); for example, a sheet of a map of scale 1: 1,000,000 for the region of Murmansk has the nomenclature R— 35,36.

Double sheets of maps of other scales are designated in a similar way: the letter or number of the eastern sheet is added to the nomenclature of the western left sheet, for example R— 35—25,26. Sheets of maps located north of parallel 76° are published quadruple in longitude. Their designation is made in the same order as double sheets, only the numbers of the next three sheets are assigned to the nomenclature of the western sheet.

1.7. SELECTION AND REQUIREMENT OF CARDS

To select the necessary sheets of maps, prefabricated tables are used - small-scale schematic maps, which show the layout and nomenclature of maps. Compiled tables are published according to scale and distributed to headquarters and troops in the same way as maps.

To select map sheets, the action zone of the unit or the exercise area is plotted on a prefabricated table of the appropriate scale, and according to the layout indicated on the prefabricated table, the nomenclatures of the sheets included in the intended area are written out.

An example of selecting maps at a scale of 1:100,000 for the area outlined in the table in Fig. 6:

N—35—143, 144; M- 35— 11, 12; N—36—133, 134; M —36— 1,2.

In the absence of a prefabricated table, the nomenclature of map sheets is determined using layout schemes (see Fig. 2,3,4,5). In this case, two cases are possible.

If the nomenclature of one or several sheets is known and it is necessary to determine the nomenclature of a number of adjacent sheets, then take a layout diagram for maps of the appropriate scale, mark these sheets on it and write out the nomenclature of adjacent sheets.

If you have to determine the nomenclature of map sheets for a new area, then you need to use some geographic map to determine the geographic coordinates of an object located in the desired area, using them to find its position on the layout of map sheets at a scale of 1: 1000,000 (see Fig. 2 ) and write down the nomenclature of this sheet. Then, according to the scheme for laying out map sheets of the appropriate scale, taking into account the latitude and longitude of the corners of the map sheet at a scale of 1: 1000,000, the position of the object is found according to its geographical coordinates and the nomenclatures of the required sheets are written down.

Rice. 6. Composite table of map sheets scale 1:100000

The nomenclature of sheets adjacent to the existing map sheet can be recognized by the signatures on the frame on the corresponding side (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Signatures on the sides of the nomenclature frame of adjacent map sheets

Requesting cards. Cards are issued on the basis of applications drawn up in the prescribed form (Table 4).

An application for topographic maps is compiled according to their scales, starting with the largest, with a sequential transition to smaller ones. Nomenclatures are written in ascending order, and only new (changing) letters or numbers of the nomenclature are written, as shown in Table. 4. The number and year of publication are indicated in the case when maps are already available and it is desirable to obtain maps of the same publication. It is mandatory to fill out the “consists” column. The totals are calculated for each scale and for the entire application.

Table 4 Application form for topographic maps

Scale, nomenclature	Vulture	Number and year of publication	Number of sheets			Note
Scale, nomenclature	Vulture	Number and year of publication	consists of	required	released	Note
1:100 000
M- 38 —12	Without neck	1—1968	20	40
	Same	1—1968	20	40
	„	2—1970	20	40
	,	2—1970	20	40
Total. . .	—	—	80	160

1.8. PREPARING THE CARD FOR WORK

Preparing a map for work includes: assessing the map, gluing map sheets, folding the map, and lifting terrain features on the map.

Card rating— familiarization with the map and understanding of its features. Familiarization with the map is carried out on the following issues: scale, height of the relief section, year of survey (composition), number and year of publication, direction correction.

The scale is recognized by the signature at the bottom of the map sheet and the size of the side of the coordinate grid square in kilometers and the scale value (how many meters or kilometers corresponds to 1 cm on the map). In addition, they understand the accuracy, completeness and detail of the map.

The height of the relief section is recognized by the signature under the map scale and the completeness and detail of the relief image is understood, as well as what steepness of the slope corresponds to the distance between horizontal lines of 1 mm.

The year of the survey or compilation of the map based on the source materials is recognized by the signature in the south-eastern corner of the sheet, while the modernity of the map and possible changes in the area are clarified.

The number and year of publication is signed under the nomenclature of the map sheet (on maps of the old edition in the northwestern corner of the sheet). The number and year of publication are indicated in combat documents in order to ensure uniformity of orientation and target designation.

The direction correction is determined by the text help or diagram placed in the southwest corner of the sheet. Direction correction is necessary if you are working with a map on the ground or moving along azimuths.

Gluing the card(Fig. 8). Before gluing, the map sheets are laid out in the appropriate order. To speed up the layout of a large number of sheets, it is recommended to draw up a diagram of their location or use a prefabricated table, outlining the sheets to be glued on it. After this, they begin to trim the edges of the adjacent sheets; cut off the eastern edges (except for the sheets of the rightmost column) and southern edges (except for the bottom row). Trimming is done with a sharp knife (razor blade) or scissors exactly along the inner frame of the sheet. Cutting cards with a knife is usually done without a ruler on a cardboard backing. The knife (razor) blade should be held at an acute angle (sloping in the direction of the cutting line).

First, the sheets are glued in rows or along columns in the direction where the strip is shorter, then the rows or columns are glued together. Gluing of sheets in columns begins from the bottom, and in rows - from the right.

When gluing cards, place the cut sheet with the reverse side on the adjacent uncut sheet and, bringing them together along the gluing line, apply a thin, uniform layer of glue to the gluing strip with a brush. Then, turning the top sheet over, combine the sheet frames, kilometer lines and corresponding contours. The gluing area is wiped with a dry cloth (paper), making a movement across the gluing line towards the cut. Minor misalignment can be corrected by rubbing in the opposite direction of the misalignment. The same procedure is used to glue rows or columns.

When gluing long strips (rows or columns), it is recommended to roll the strip with cut sheets into a roll, and apply glue to the bottom strip (with cut edges) and, gradually unwinding the roll, align and iron the strips to be glued.

If the deformation of two adjacent sheets is unequal (one side of the frame is longer than the other), the shorter sheet is smeared with glue, which allows it to be somewhat stretched and equalized with the longer one,

Folding the card. When preparing a card for indoor use, it is folded like an accordion in two directions. First, an accordion is formed in the direction of the elongated side of the card, and then the resulting strip is folded again into an accordion. The size of the folded card should correspond to the size of a standard sheet (21x31 cm) or the size of the folder to store it.

To work on the ground, the map is folded like an accordion along the action strip (route), taking into account the convenience of storing it in a field bag (tablet). In this case, the unfolded map is oriented along the route and unnecessary parts of the map are tucked in, leaving a strip the size of the field bag (tablet), and then it is folded like an accordion.

When folding, the card must be carefully smoothed and folded as tightly as possible, avoiding bending it at the places where the sheets are glued.

Raising terrain elements on the map (raising the map) used when it is necessary to more clearly show (highlight) local objects and relief elements that are important for a given task.

Elements of the area are highlighted on the map with colored pencils by coloring, enlarging the symbol, underlining or enlarging the name signature.

Rivers, streams and canals are raised by thickening lines and shading of blue color. The swamps are covered with blue shading, lines parallel to the bottom edge of the map.

Bridges, crossings, roads, etc. are raised by enlarging the symbol with a black pencil. Local objects used for orientation, depicted by off-scale symbols, are circled in black.

The relief is raised by shading the vertices with a light brown color or by thickening some horizontal lines and shading them downwards.

Forests, continuous shrubs and gardens are raised by outlining the edge with a thickened line and lightly painting the outline in green.

Roads and routes are marked by drawing a thick brown line along the symbol.

Settlements are highlighted by underlining or enlarging the inscriptions of their names. Small settlements are also distinguished by their outer contour.

1.9. MEASUREMENT (DETERMINATION) OF DISTANCE AND AREA ON THE MAP

When determining distances on a map, numerical or linear (Fig. 9) and transverse scales are used.

1:50000 in 1 centimeter 500 meters

Rice. 9. Numerical and linear scales placed on the map

Numerical scale— map scale, expressed as a fraction, the numerator of which is one, and the denominator is a number showing the degree of reduction of terrain lines on the map (more precisely, their horizontal layouts); The smaller the scale denominator, the larger the map scale. The inscription of the numerical scale on maps is usually accompanied by an indication of the scale value - the distance on the ground (in meters or kilometers) corresponding to one centimeter of the map. The scale value in meters corresponds to the denominator of the numerical scale without the last two zeros,

When determining a distance using a numerical scale, a line on a map is measured with a ruler and the resulting result in centimeters is multiplied by the scale value.

Linear scale— graphic expression of the numerical scale; it represents a straight line divided into specific parts, which are accompanied by labels indicating distances on the ground. A linear scale is used to measure and plot distances on a map. In Fig. 10 distance between points A And IN equals 1850 m.

Rice. 10. Measuring distances using a linear scale

Transverse scale - a graph (usually on a metal plate) for measuring and plotting distances on a map with extreme graphic accuracy (0.1 mm).

The standard (normal) transverse scale (Fig. II) has large divisions equal to 2 cm, and small divisions (on the left on the graph), equal to 2 mm", in addition, on the graph there are segments between the vertical and inclined lines, equal along the first horizontal line - 0.2 mm, for the second - 0.4 mm, for the third - 0.6 mm etc. Using a standard transverse scale, you can measure and plot distances on a map of any (metric) scale. The distance reading on the transverse scale consists of the sum of the reading based on the graph and the reading of the segment between the vertical and inclined lines. In Fig. 11 distance between points A And IN(with map scale 1:100,000) equals 5500 m (4 km+1400 m+100 m).

Rice. eleven. Measuring distances on a transverse scale

Measuring distances with a measuring compass. At When measuring a distance in a straight line, the needles of the compass are set at the end points, then, without changing the opening of the compass, the distance is measured using a linear or transverse scale. In the case when the opening of the compass exceeds the length of the linear or transverse scale, the whole number of kilometers is determined by the squares of the coordinate grid, and the remainder is determined in the usual order according to the scale.

It is convenient to measure broken lines by sequentially increasing the compass solution in straight segments, as shown in Fig. 12.

The measurement of the lengths of curved lines is carried out by successively plotting the “step” of the compass (Fig. 13). The size of the “step” of the compass depends on the degree of tortuosity of the line, but, as a rule, should not exceed 1 cm. To eliminate systematic error, the length of the “step” of the compass, determined by scale or ruler, should be checked by measuring a line of a kilometer grid with a length of 6-8 cm.

The length of a winding line measured on a map is always somewhat less than its actual length, since it is not the curved line that is measured, but the chords of individual sections of this curve; therefore, it is necessary to introduce a correction into the results of measurements on the map - coefficients for increasing distances (see Table 29).

Rice. 12. Measuring distances by increasing the compass solution

Rice. 13. Measuring distances by “step” of a compass

Measuring distances with a curvimeter. By rotating the wheel, the curvimeter needle is set to the zero division, and then the wheel is rolled along the measured line with uniform pressure from left to right (or from bottom to top); the resulting reading in centimeters is multiplied by the scale value of this map.

Determining distances using rectangular coordinates within one zone can be produced using the formula

Where D— line length, l;

Xi, Yi— coordinates of the starting point of the line; Xi, yi - coordinates of the end point of the line.

Determination of areas by squares of a kilometer grid. The area of the plot is determined by counting whole squares and their shares, estimated by eye. Each square of the kilometer grid corresponds to: on maps of scale 1:25000 and 1:50000—1 sq. km, on maps of scale 1:100,000 - 4 sq. km, on maps at scale 1:200000—16 sq. km.

Determination of areas using a geometric method. The area is divided by straight lines into rectangles, triangles and trapezoids. The areas of these figures are calculated using geometry formulas, having previously measured the necessary quantities. Formulas for calculating the areas P of geometric figures: - a rectangle with sides A and B:

— right triangle with legs A and B:

— triangle with side o and height h:

— trapezoid with parallel sides a and & and height h:

1.10. RECTANGULAR COORDINATES ON MAPS

Rectangular coordinates(flat) - linear quantities: abscissa X and ordinate Y, defining the position of points on a plane (on a map) relative to two mutually perpendicular axes X And Y(Fig. 14). Abscissa X and ordinate Y points A- distances from the origin to the bases of the perpendiculars dropped from the point A on the corresponding axes, indicating the sign.

Rice. 14. Rectangular coordinates

In topography and geodesy, as well as on topographic maps, orientation is carried out in the north with angles counted clockwise, therefore, to preserve the signs of trigonometric functions, the position of the coordinate axes, accepted in mathematics, is rotated by 90°.

Rectangular coordinates on topographic maps of the USSR are applied by coordinate zones. Coordinate zones are parts of the earth's surface bounded by meridians with longitude divisible by 6°. The first zone is limited by meridians 0° and 6°, the second by b" and 12°, the third by 12° and 18°, etc.

The zones are counted from the Greenwich meridian from west to east. The territory of the USSR is located in 29 zones: from the 4th to the 32nd inclusive. The length of each zone from north to south is about 20,000 km. The width of the zone at the equator is about 670 km, at latitude 40°—510 km, t latitude 50°—430 km, at latitude 60°—340 km.

All topographic maps within a given zone have a common rectangular coordinate system. The origin of coordinates in each zone is the point of intersection of the average (axial) meridian of the zone with the equator (Fig. 15), the average meridian of the zone corresponds to

Rice. 15. System of rectangular coordinates on topographic maps: a—one zone; b—parts of the zone

the abscissa axes, and the equator the ordinate axes. With this arrangement coordinate axes The abscissas of points located south of the equator and the ordinates of points located west of the middle meridian will have negative values. For the convenience of using coordinates on topographic maps, a conditional count of ordinates has been adopted, excluding negative ordinate values. This is achieved by the fact that the ordinates are counted not from zero, but from the value 500 km, That is, the origin of coordinates in each zone is, as it were, moved to 500 km left along the axis Y. In addition, to unambiguously determine the position of a point using rectangular coordinates on the globe to the coordinate value Y The zone number (single or double digit number) is assigned to the left.

The relationship between conditional coordinates and their real values is expressed by the formulas:

X" = X-, Y = U— 500,000,

Where X" And Y"— real ordinate values; X,Y— conditional values of ordinates. For example, if a point has coordinates

X = 5 650 450: Y= 3 620 840,

then this means that the point is located in the third zone at a distance of 120 km 840 m from the middle meridian of the zone (620840—500000) and north of the equator at a distance of 5650 km 450 m.

Full coordinates- rectangular coordinates, written (named) in full, without any abbreviations. In the example above, the full coordinates of the object are given:

X = 5 650 450; Y= 3620 840.

Abbreviated coordinates are used to speed up target designation on a topographic map; in this case, only tens and units of kilometers and meters are indicated. For example, the abbreviated coordinates of this object would be:

X = 50 450; Y = 20 840.

Abbreviated coordinates cannot be used for target designation at the junction of coordinate zones and if the area of operation covers a space of more than 100 km by latitude or longitude.

Coordinate (kilometer) grid- a grid of squares on topographic maps, formed by horizontal and vertical lines drawn parallel to the axes of rectangular coordinates at certain intervals (Table 5). These lines are called kilometer lines. The coordinate grid is intended for determining the coordinates of objects and plotting objects on a map according to their coordinates, for target designation, map orientation, measuring directional angles and for approximate determination of distances and areas.

Table 5 Coordinate grids on maps

Map scales	Dimensions of the sides of the squares		Areas of squares, sq. km
Map scales	on the map, cm	on the ground, km	Areas of squares, sq. km
1:25 000	4	1
1:50 000	2	1	1
1:100 000	2	2	4
1:200 000	2	4	16

On a map at a scale of 1:500,000, the coordinate grid is not completely shown; only the outputs of kilometer lines are plotted on the sides of the frame (after 2 cm). If necessary, a coordinate grid can be drawn on the map along these outputs.

Kilometer lines on maps are marked at their boundary exits and at several intersections inside the sheet (Fig. 16). The outermost kilometer lines on the map sheet are signed in full, the rest are abbreviated with two numbers (i.e., only tens and units of kilometers are indicated). The labels on the horizontal lines correspond to the distances from the ordinate axis (equator) in kilometers. For example, signature 6082 in the right top corner shows that this line is located at a distance of 6082 from the equator km.

The labels of the vertical lines indicate the zone number (one or two first digits) and the distance in kilometers (always three digits) from the origin of coordinates, conventionally moved west of the middle meridian by 500 km. For example, the signature 4308 in the lower left corner means: 4 - zone number, 308 - distance from the conditional origin in kilometers.

An additional coordinate (kilometer) grid can be plotted on topographic maps at scales of 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000 and 1:200,000 along the exits of kilometer lines in the adjacent western or eastern zone. Outputs of kilometer lines in the form of dashes with corresponding signatures are given on maps located 2° east and west of the boundary meridians of the zone.

Rice. 16. Coordinate (kilometer) grid on a map sheet

An additional coordinate grid is intended to transform the coordinates of one zone into the coordinate system of another, neighboring zone.

In Fig. 17 lines on the outside of the western frame with signatures 81,6082 and on the northern side of the frame with signatures 3693, 94, 95, etc. indicate the outputs of kilometer lines in the coordinate system of the adjacent (third) zone. If necessary, an additional coordinate grid is drawn on a sheet of map by connecting lines of the same name on opposite sides of the frame. The newly constructed grid is a continuation of the kilometer grid of the map sheet of the adjacent zone and must completely coincide (close) with it when gluing the map.

Western (3rd) zone coordinate grid

Rice. 17. Additional coordinate grid

1.11. DETERMINING RECTANGULAR COORDINATES ON THE MAP AND PLACING OBJECTS ON THE MAP BY COORDINATES

Determining the rectangular coordinates of an object using a map using a compass. Using a compass, the distance from a given object to the bottom kilometer line is measured perpendicularly and its actual value is determined using a scale. Then this value in meters is added to the right to the signature of the kilometer line, and if the length of the segment is more than a kilometer, the kilometers are first summed up, and then the number of meters is also added to the right. This will be the coordinate of the object X(abscissa).

The same method is used to determine the coordinate Y(ordinate), only the distance from the object is measured to the left side of the square. In the absence of a compass, the distances are measured with a ruler or strip of paper

Rice. 18. Determination of rectangular coordinates of objects on the map

An example of determining the coordinates of an object A shown in Fig. 18:

X= 5 877100; Y == 3,302,700.

X= 5 874 850; Y = 3 298 800.

Determination of rectangular coordinates using a coordinate meter. A coordinate dynatomer is a device for measuring coordinates. The most common coordinate meter is in the form of a right angle of a transparent ruler, on the sides of which there are millimeter divisions. This type of coordinate meter is available on the commander's ruler.

When determining coordinates, the coordinate meter is placed on the square in which the object is located and, aligning the vertical scale with its left side, and the horizontal scale with the object, as shown in Fig. 18, take readings.

Counts in millimeters (tenths of a millimeter are counted by eye) in accordance with the scale of the map are converted into real values - kilometers and meters, and then the value obtained on the vertical scale is summed (if it is more than a kilometer) with the digitization of the bottom side of the square or assigned to it on the right (if the value is less than a kilometer). This will be the coordinate X object.

The coordinates are obtained in the same manner Y— the value corresponding to the reading on the horizontal scale, only the summation is carried out with the digitization of the left side of the square.

In Fig. Figure 18 shows an example of determining the rectangular coordinates of object C: X -= 5,873,300; Y = 3,300,800.

Drawing an object on a map using rectangular coordinates using a compass or ruler. First of all, using the coordinates of the object in kilometers and the digitization of kilometer lines, a square is found on the map in which the object should be located.

The square of the location of the object on a map at a scale of 1:50,000, where kilometer lines are drawn through 1 km, found directly by object coordinates in kilometers.

On a map of scale 1: 100,000 kilometer lines are drawn through 2 km and are signed with even numbers, so if one or two coordinates of an object in kilometers are odd numbers, then you need to find a square whose sides are signed with numbers one less than the corresponding coordinate in kilometers.

On a map of scale 1:200,000, kilometer lines are drawn through 4 km, therefore, the sides of the desired square will be labeled with numbers that are multiples of four, less than the corresponding coordinate of the object in kilometers by one, two or three kilometers. For example, if the coordinates of an object are given (in kilometers): X==6755 and Y=4613, then the sides of the square will have digits: 6752 and 4612. After finding the square in which the object is located, calculate the distance of the object from the bottom side of the square and set it aside on the map scale from the bottom corners of the square up. A ruler is laid to the resulting points and from the left side of the square, also on a map scale, a distance equal to the distance of the object from this side is plotted.

In Fig. Figure 19 shows an example of mapping an object A by coordinates: X=3 768,850, Y=29,457,500.

Rice. 19. Drawing objects on the map using rectangular coordinates

Drawing an object on a map using a coordinate meter, engraved on the commander's ruler. Based on the coordinates of the object in kilometers and the digitization of kilometer lines, the square in which the object is located is determined. A coordinate meter is placed on this square in the same way as when determining coordinates (see Fig. 18), its vertical scale is aligned with the western side of the square so that against the bottom side of the square there is a reading corresponding to the coordinate X on the map scale minus the digitization of this side of the square. Then, without changing the position of the coordinate meter, find a reading on the horizontal scale that corresponds (also on the map scale) to the coordinate dimension Y object and digitization of the western side of the square. The point opposite the stroke at this reference will correspond to the position of the object on the map.

In Fig. Figure 19 shows an example of mapping object B, located in an incomplete square, according to the coordinates:

X = 3,765,500; U = 29 45750.

In this case, the coordinate meter is applied so that its horizontal scale is aligned with the northern side of the square, and the reading against its western side corresponds to the difference in coordinate Y object and digitization of this side (29457 km 650 m— 29456 km=1 km 650 m). The count corresponding to the difference between the digitization of the north side of the square and the coordinate Y object (3766 km — 3765 km 500 m), laid down on a vertical scale. Dot against stroke at counting 500 m will indicate the position of the object on the map.

1.12. GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES AND DETERMINING THEM BY MAP

Geographical coordinates—angular values: latitude (p and longitude TO, determining the position of objects on the earth’s surface and on the map (Fig. 20).

Latitude is the angle (p) between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator. Latitudes vary from 0 to 90°; in the northern hemisphere they are called northern, in the southern - southern.

Longitude—dihedral angle TO between the plane of the prime meridian and the plane of the meridian of a given point on the earth's surface. The prime meridian is taken to be the meridian passing through the center of the Greenwich Observatory (London area). The prime meridian is called Greenwich. Longitudes vary from 0 to 180°. Longitudes measured east of the Greenwich meridian are called eastern, and longitudes,. counted to the west - western.

Geographic coordinates obtained from astronomical observations are called astronomical, and coordinates obtained by geodetic methods and determined from topographic maps are called geodetic. The values of astronomical and geodetic coordinates of the same points differ slightly - in linear measures on average by 60-90 m.

Geographic (cartographic) grid formed on the map by lines of parallels and meridians. It is used for targeting and determining the geographic coordinates of objects.

On topographic maps, the lines of parallels and meridians serve as the internal frames of the sheets; their latitudes and longitudes are signed on the corners of each sheet. On sheets of maps of the western hemisphere, the inscription “West of Greenwich” is placed in the northwestern corner of the frame.

Rice. 20. Geographic coordinates: f—latitude of point L; TO- longitude of the point A

On sheets of maps of scale 1:50000, 1:100000 and 1:200000 the intersections of average parallels and meridians are shown and their digitization in degrees and minutes is given. Using these data, the signatures of the latitudes and longitudes of the sides of the frames of the sheets cut off when gluing the map are reconstructed. In addition, along the sides of the frames inside the sheet there are small ones (2-3 mm) strokes after one minute, along which you can draw parallels and meridians on a map glued together from many sheets.

On maps of scale 1:25,000, 1:50,000 and 1:200,000, the sides of the frames are divided into segments equal to one minute in degrees. Minute segments are shaded every other and separated by dots (with the exception of the 1:200000 scale map) into parts of 10".

On map sheets at a scale of 1:500,000, parallels are drawn through 30", and meridians through 20"; on maps at scale 1:1000000

parallels are drawn through 1°, meridians - through 40". Inside each sheet of the map, their latitudes and longitudes are signed on the lines of parallels and meridians, which make it possible to determine geographic coordinates on a large map glued together.

Definition geographic coordinates of the object on the map is carried out according to the parallels and meridians closest to it, the latitude and longitude of which are known. On maps at a scale of 1:25000—

1:200,000 For this, as a rule, it is necessary to first draw a parallel to the south of the object and a meridian to the west, connecting with lines the corresponding strokes along the frame of the map sheet. The latitude of the parallel and the longitude of the meridian are calculated and labeled on the map (V degrees and minutes). Then the segments from the object to the parallel and the meridian are estimated in angular measure (in seconds or fractions of a minute) (Ami And Ami in Fig. 21), comparing their linear dimensions with minute (second) intervals on the sides of the frame. Size of the segment Ati is added to the latitude of the parallel, and the segment Ami - to the longitude of the meridian and obtain the desired geographic coordinates of the object - latitude and longitude.

In Fig. Figure 21 shows an example of determining the geographic coordinates of an object A, its coordinates: north latitude 54°35"40", east longitude 37°41"30".

Drawing an object on a map using geographic coordinates. On the western and eastern sides of the frame of the map sheet, marks corresponding to the latitude of the object are marked with dashes. The latitude count starts from the digitization of the southern side of the frame and continues at minute and second intervals. Then a line parallel to the object is drawn through these lines.

The meridian of an object is constructed in the same way, only its longitude is measured along the southern and northern sides of the frame. The intersection point of the parallel and the meridian will indicate the position of the object on the map.

In Fig. 21 provides an example of mapping an object IN at coordinates: d=54°38",3; w=37°34",7.

1.13. POLAR AND BIPOLAR COORDINATES

Polar coordinates- quantities that determine the position of a point on the plane relative to the starting point taken as the pole. Such quantities are the position angle, measured from the direction of the polar axis, and the distance (range) from the pole to the determined point (Fig. 22).

Rice. 22. Polar coordinates: position angle, a and distance (range) D

The polar axis can be the direction to a landmark, a meridian line (true or magnetic), or a vertical grid line. Position angles from the true meridian, magnetic meridian and vertical grid line are called true azimuths, magnetic azimuths and directional angles, respectively (see section 1.14) and are counted clockwise.

Polar coordinates are widely used in orientation and target designation.

Bipolar coordinates—two linear or angular quantities that determine the position of a point relative to two reference points (poles). Linear quantities are the distances (ranges) from the poles to the determined point. Angular quantities can be magnetic or true azimuths, directional angles or angles measured from a line connecting the starting points (Fig. 23).

Meridian convergence - corner f(Fig. 24) between the northern direction of the true meridian of a given point and the vertical

Rice. 24. Directional angle and convergence of meridians

grid line (or a line parallel to it). The convergence of meridians is measured from the northern direction of the true meridian to the northern direction of the vertical line. For points located east of the middle meridian of the zone, the convergence value is positive, and for points located to the west - negative,

The amount of convergence of meridians on the axial meridian of the zone is zero and increases with distance from the middle meridian of the zone and from the equator; its maximum value will be near the poles and does not exceed 3°.

The convergence of meridians indicated on topographic maps refers to the midpoint (central) point of the sheet; its value within the sheet of a map of scale 1 :1

The declination of the magnetic needle to the east is considered eastern (positive), and to the west - western (negative). Transfer from directorial the angle to the magnetic azimuth to the reverse is made in various ways; all the necessary data for this is available on each sheet of the map at a scale of 1:25,000–1:200,000 in a special text help and graphic diagram placed in the margins of the sheet in the lower left corner (Fig. 25).

Transition through direction correction. The text information placed on the maps indicates the value (in degrees and protractor divisions) and the sign of the correction for the transition from the directional angle to the magnetic azimuth. For example, in the help shown in Fig. 25, it is indicated: “Amendment to the directional angle when transitioning to magnetic azimuth plus (0-16).” Therefore, if the directional angle of direction is 18-00 div. arc., then the magnetic azimuth will be equal to 18-16 divisions. ang.

During the reverse transition, i.e., when determining the directional angle from the magnetic azimuth, the sign of the correction is reversed and it is introduced into the magnetic azimuth. For example, if the magnetic azimuth is 10-00, then the directional angle of this direction for this map (Fig. 25) is 9-84 (10-00—0-16).

Transitional graphic diagram (Fig. 26). The diagram shows the approximate direction to the object and, in accordance with the position of the vertical grid line and the magnetic meridian line, increases or decreases the original angle by the correction indicated in parentheses on the diagram.

An example of the transition from a directional angle equal to 120°30", to the magnetic azimuth of this direction in 1972 (initial data taken from Fig. 25).

1. Determination of the magnitude of change in the declination of the magnetic needle over 7 years (1972-1965): D=0°05", 2X7=0°36".

2. Calculation of the magnetic declination for 1972: b =—3°10"+0°36"=—2°34".

3. Transition from directional angle to magnetic azimuth according to the basic formula (see above)

A m = 120°3(U— (-2°34")+ (-2° 12") = 120°52".

1.15. MEASURING DIRECTIONAL ANGLES BY MAP

Measuring with a protractor. With a finely sharpened pencil, carefully along a ruler, draw a line through the main points of the symbols of the starting point and landmark. The length of the drawn line must be greater than the radius of the protractor, counting from the point of its intersection with the vertical grid line. Then align the center of the protractor with the intersection point and rotate it in accordance with the angle, as shown in Fig. 27. Counting against the drawn line at the position of the protractor indicated in Fig. 27, a, will correspond to the value of the directional angle, and with the position of the protractor indicated in Fig. 27.6, 180° must be added to the resulting reading.

When measuring the directional angle, it must be remembered that the directional angle is measured from the north direction of the vertical grid line in a clockwise direction.

The average error in measuring the directional angle using a protractor on the commander's ruler is approximately 1°. A large protractor (with a radius of 8-10 cm) An angle on a map can be measured with an average error of 15".

Rice. 27. Measuring directional angles with a protractor

Measurement with a chord angle meter(Fig. 28). Through the main points of the symbols of the starting point and landmark, draw a thin straight line on the map with a length of at least 12 cm. From the point of intersection of this line with the vertical line of the map grid, using a compass, marks are made on them with a radius equal to the distance on the chord-angle measure from 0 to 10 major divisions. Serifs are made on lines that form an acute angle.

Then the chord is measured - the distance between the marks of the deferred radii. To do this, the left needle of the measuring compass with a delayed chord is moved along the leftmost vertical line of the chord angle meter scale until the right needle of the compass coincides with any intersection of the inclined and horizontal line. In this case, the right needle must be moved strictly at the same level as the left one. In this position of the compass, a count is made against its right needle. Large and tens of small divisions are counted along the upper part of the scale. On the left side of the scale with divisions 0-01, the angle value is specified. An example of measuring an angle with a chord angle meter is shown in the figure.

Using a chord angle meter, the acute angle from the nearest vertical grid line is measured, and the directional angle is counted clockwise from the north direction of the grid line. The value of the directional angle is determined by the measured angle depending on the quarter in which the reference point is located. Relationship between measured angle A" and directional angle a is shown in Fig. 29.

Rice. 28. Measuring the directional angle with a chord angle meter

Angles can be measured with a chord angle meter with an average error of 0-01—0-02 divisions. ang. (4-8").

Rice. 29. Transition from angle a", measured by a chord angle meter, to directional angle a

Measurement with an artillery circle. The center of the circle is aligned with the starting point (the main point of the symbol) and the circle is set so that its diameter 0-30 is parallel to the vertical lines of the coordinate grid, and the zero is directed north. Then the scale ruler is aligned with the main point of the landmark symbol and the angle value is read at the intersection of the edge of the ruler with the circle scale.

An artillery circle can be used to measure the directional angle without a scale ruler (Fig. 30). In this case, a line is first drawn on the map through the main points of the symbols of the starting point and landmark. Then the artillery circle is installed as indicated above, and the value of the directional angle is read against the drawn line on the circle scale.

Rice. thirty. Measuring the directional angle with an artillery circle

Artillery circle directional angle. can be measured with an average error of 0-03 div. ang.

1.16. CONSTRUCTION ON THE MAP DIRECTIONS

The direction along the directional angle in degrees is plotted on the map using a protractor. A line parallel to the vertical line of the coordinate grid is drawn through the main point of the symbol of the starting point. A protractor is applied to it, as shown in Fig. 27.

A mark is made on the map against the corresponding division of the protractor scale and then, after removing the protractor, connect it with a straight line to the starting point. This line will correspond to the given direction.

Using an artillery circle, directions are plotted on the map along directional angles in the divisions of the protractor. The center of the circle is aligned with the starting point and the circle is set with a diameter of 0-30 parallel to the vertical grid lines with a zero division to the north. On a scale with signatures increasing clockwise, a mark is made on the map against the required division. A straight line drawn through the starting point and this mark will be the desired direction.

A topographic map is a universal-purpose geographic map that depicts the terrain in detail. A topographic map contains information about geodetic reference points, relief, hydrography, vegetation, soils, economic and cultural objects, roads, communications, boundaries and other terrain objects. The completeness of the content and accuracy of topographic maps make it possible to solve technical problems.

The science of creating topographic maps is topography.

All geographical maps, depending on their scale, are conventionally divided into the following types:

topographic plans - up to 1:5 000 inclusive;
large-scale topographic maps - from 1:10,000 to 1:200,000 inclusive;
medium-scale topographic maps - from 1:200,000 (not including) to 1:1,000,000 inclusive;
small-scale topographic maps - less than (less than) 1:1,000,000.

The smaller the denominator of a numerical scale, the larger the scale. Plans are drawn up on a large scale, and maps are drawn up on a small scale. Maps take into account the “spherical shape” of the Earth, but plans do not. Because of this, plans should not be drawn up for areas larger than 400 km² (that is, areas of land larger than 20x20 km). The main difference between topographic maps (in a narrow, strict sense) is their large scale, namely the scale of 1:200,000 and larger (the first two points, more strictly the second point: from 1:10,000 to 1:200,000 inclusive).

Geographical objects and their outlines are depicted in most detail on large-scale (topographic) maps. When you zoom out on a map, details have to be excluded and generalized. Individual objects are replaced by their collective meanings. Selection and generalization become apparent when comparing images at different scales settlement, which on a scale of 1:10,000 is given in the form of individual buildings, on a scale of 1:50,000 - by blocks, and on a scale of 1:100,000 - by punches. Selection and synthesis of content when compiling geographical maps called cartographic generalization. It aims to preserve and highlight on the map the typical features of the depicted phenomena in accordance with the purpose of the map.

Secrecy

Topographic maps of the territory of Russia up to a scale of 1:50,000 inclusive are classified, topographic maps of a scale of 1:100,000 are intended for official use (DSP), and a smaller scale of 1:100,000 are unclassified.

Those working with maps up to a scale of 1:50,000 are required, in addition to permission (license) from Federal service state registration, cadastre and cartography or certificate of a self-regulatory organization (SRO), obtain permission from the FSB, since such maps constitute a state secret. For the loss of a map of a scale of 1:50,000 or larger, in accordance with Article 284 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation “Loss of documents containing state secrets”, a penalty of up to three years imprisonment.

At the same time, after 1991, secret maps of the entire territory of the USSR, stored in the headquarters of military districts located outside of Russia, appeared on the public market. Since the leadership of, for example, Ukraine or Belarus does not need to maintain the secrecy of maps of foreign territories.

The problem of the existing secrecy on maps became acute in February 2005 in connection with the launch of the Google Maps project, which allows anyone to use high-resolution color space images (up to several meters), although in Russia any space image with a resolution of more than 10 meters is considered secret and requires an order declassification procedures in the FSB.

In other countries, this problem is resolved by using object secrecy rather than area secrecy. With object secrecy, the free distribution of large-scale topographic maps and photographs of strictly defined objects, for example, areas of military operations, military bases and training grounds, and military ship sites, is prohibited. For this purpose, a methodology has been developed for creating topographic maps and plans of any scale that are not classified and intended for public use.

Scales of topographic maps and plans

Map scale- this is the ratio of the length of a segment on the map to its actual length on the ground.

Scale(from German - measure and Stab - stick) - the ratio of the length of a segment on a map, plan, aerial or satellite image to its actual length on the ground.

Numerical scale- a scale expressed as a fraction, where the numerator is one, and the denominator is a number indicating how many times the image is reduced.

Named (verbal) scale- type of scale, verbal indication of what distance on the ground corresponds to 1 cm on a map, plan, photograph.

Linear scale- an auxiliary measuring ruler applied to maps to facilitate the measurement of distances.

A named scale is expressed by named numbers indicating the lengths of mutually corresponding segments on the map and in nature.

For example, there are 5 kilometers in 1 centimeter (5 kilometers in 1 cm).

Numerical scale - a scale expressed as a fraction in which: the numerator equal to one, and the denominator is equal to the number showing how many times the linear dimensions on the map are reduced.

The scale of the plan is the same at all its points.

The map scale at each point has its own particular value, depending on the latitude and longitude of the given point. Therefore, its strict numerical characteristic is a partial scale - the ratio of the length of an infinitesimal segment D/ on the map to the length of the corresponding infinitesimal segment on the surface of the ellipsoid of the globe. However, for practical measurements on a map, its main scale is used.

Forms of expression of scale

The designation of scale on maps and plans has three forms: numerical, named and linear scales.

The numerical scale is expressed as a fraction in which the numerator is one, and the denominator M is a number showing how many times the dimensions on the map or plan are reduced (1: M)

In Russia, standard numerical scales are adopted for topographic maps:

For special purposes, topographic maps are also created at scales of 1: 5,000 and 1: 2,000.

Main scales topographic plans in Russia are:

1:5000, 1:2000, 1:1000 and 1:500.

However, in land management practice, land use plans are most often drawn up at scales of 1: 10,000 and 1:25,000, and sometimes 1: 50,000.

When comparing different numerical scales, the smaller one is the one with the larger denominator M, and, conversely, the smaller the denominator M, the larger the scale of the plan or map.

Thus, a scale of 1: 10,000 is larger than a scale of 1: 100,000, and a scale of 1: 50,000 is smaller than a scale of 1: 10,000.

Named scale

Since the lengths of lines on the ground are usually measured in meters, and on maps and plans - in centimeters, it is convenient to express the scales in verbal form, for example:

There are 50 meters in one centimeter. This corresponds to a numerical scale of 1: 5000. Since 1 meter is equal to 100 centimeters, the number of meters of terrain contained in 1 cm of a map or plan is easily determined by dividing the denominator of the numerical scale by 100.

Linear scale

It is a graph in the form of a straight line segment, divided into equal parts with signed values of the corresponding lengths of terrain lines. Linear scale allows you to measure or plot distances on maps and plans without calculations.

Scale accuracy

The maximum possibility of measuring and constructing segments on maps and plans is limited to 0.01 cm. The corresponding number of meters of terrain on the scale of a map or plan represents the maximum graphic accuracy of a given scale. Since the accuracy of the scale expresses the length of the horizontal location of the terrain line in meters, to determine it, the denominator of the numerical scale should be divided by 10,000 (1 m contains 10,000 segments of 0.01 cm each). So, for a map of scale 1: 25,000, the scale accuracy is 2.5 m; for map 1: 100,000- 10 m, etc.

Scales of topographic maps

Below are the numerical scales of the maps and the corresponding named scales:

Scale 1: 100,000
1 mm on the map - 100 m (0.1 km) on the ground

1 cm on the map - 1000 m (1 km) on the ground

10 cm on the map - 10,000 m (10 km) on the ground
Scale 1:10000
1 mm on the map – 10 m (0.01 km) on the ground

1 cm on the map - 100 m (0.1 km) on the ground

10 cm on the map - 1000m (1 km) on the ground
Scale 1:5000
1 mm on the map – 5 m (0.005 km) on the ground

1 cm on the map - 50 m (0.05 km) on the ground

10 cm on the map – 500 m (0.5 km) on the ground
Scale 1:2000
1 mm on the map – 2 m (0.002 km) on the ground

1 cm on the map – 20 m (0.02 km) on the ground

10 cm on the map – 200 m (0.2 km) on the ground
Scale 1:1000
1 mm on the map – 100 cm (1 m) on the ground

1 cm on the map – 1000 cm (10 m) on the ground

10 cm on the map – 100 m on the ground
Scale 1:500
1 mm on the map – 50 cm (0.5 meters) on the ground

1 cm on the map – 5 m on the ground

10 cm on the map – 50 m on the ground
Scale 1:200
1 mm on the map –0.2 m (20 cm) on the ground

1 cm on the map – 2 m (200 cm) on the ground

10 cm on the map – 20 m (0.2 km) on the ground
Scale 1:100
1 mm on the map – 0.1 m (10 cm) on the ground

1 cm on the map – 1 m (100 cm) on the ground

10 cm on the map – 10 m (0.01 km) on the ground

To convert a numerical scale to a named scale, you need to convert the number in the denominator and corresponding to the number of centimeters into kilometers (meters). For example, 1: 100,000 in 1 cm - 1 km.

To convert a named scale to a numerical scale, you need to convert the number of kilometers to centimeters. For example, in 1 cm - 50 km 1: 5,000,000.

Nomenclature of topographic plans and maps

Nomenclature is a system of layout and designation of topographic plans and maps.

The division of a multi-sheet map into separate sheets according to a certain system is called map layout, and the designation of a sheet of a multi-sheet map is called nomenclature. In cartographic practice, the following map layout systems are used:

along the lines of the cartographic grid of meridians and parallels;
along the lines of a rectangular coordinate grid;
along auxiliary lines parallel to the middle meridian of the map and a line perpendicular to it, etc.

The most widespread in cartography is the layout of maps along the lines of meridians and parallels, since in this case the position of each sheet of the map on the earth's surface is precisely determined by the values of the geographical coordinates of the corners of the frame and the position of its lines. Such a system is universal, convenient for depicting any territory of the globe, except for the polar regions. It is used in Russia, the USA, France, Germany and many other countries of the world.

The basis for the nomenclature of maps in the territory Russian Federation The international layout of map sheets at a scale of 1:1 000000 is required. To obtain one sheet of a map of this scale Earth divided by meridians and parallels into columns and rows (belts).

Meridians are drawn every 6°. The columns are counted from 1 to 60 from 180° of the meridian from 1 to 60 from west to east, counterclockwise. The columns coincide with the zones of the rectangular layout, but their numbers differ by exactly 30. So for zone 12, the column number is 42.

Column numbers

Parallels are drawn every 4°. The belts from A to W are counted from the equator to the north and south.

Row numbers

The 1:1,000,000 map sheet contains 4 1:500,000 map sheets, designated by capital letters A, B, C, D; 36 sheets of map 1:200,000, designated from I to XXXVI; 144 sheets of 1:100,000 map, designated from 1 to 144.

The 1:100,000 map sheet contains 4 1:50,000 map sheets, which are designated by capital letters A, B, C, D.

The 1:50,000 map sheet is divided into 4 1:25,000 map sheets, which are designated by lowercase letters a, b, c, d.

Within a sheet of map 1:1,000,000, the arrangement of numbers and letters when designating sheets of maps 1:500,000 and larger is done from left to right in rows and in the direction to the south pole. The initial row is adjacent to northern frame leaf.

The disadvantage of this layout system is the change in the linear dimensions of the northern and southern frames of map sheets depending on geographical latitude. As a result, as they move away from the equator, the sheets take on the appearance of increasingly narrow strips stretched along the meridians. Therefore, topographic maps of Russia at all scales from 60 to 76° northern and southern latitudes are published in double longitude sheets, and in the range from 76 to 84° - in quadruple sheets (on a scale of 1:200,000 - folded) in longitude sheets.

The nomenclature of map sheets at scales 1:500,000, 1:200,000 and 1:100,000 is composed of the nomenclature of a map sheet of 1:1,000,000, followed by the addition of designations for map sheets of the corresponding scales. The nomenclatures of double, triple or quadruple sheets contain the designations of all individual sheets presented in the table:

Nomenclatures of topographic map sheets for the northern hemisphere.

1:1 000 000	N-37	P-47.48	T-45,46,47,48
1:500 000	N-37-B	R-47-A,B	T-45-A,B,46-A,B
1:200 000	N-37-IV	P-47-I,II	T-47-I,II,III
1:100 000	N-37-12	P-47-9.10	T-47-133, 134,135,136
1:50 000	N-37-12-A	P-47-9-A,B	T-47-133-A,B, 134-A.B
1:25 000	N-37-12-A-a	R-47-9-A-a,b	T-47-12-A-a, b, B-a, b

On sheets of the southern hemisphere, a signature (YUP) is placed to the right of the nomenclature.

N37

On the sheets of topographic maps of the entire scale series, along with the nomenclature, their coded digital designations (ciphers) are placed, which are necessary for recording maps using automated means. Coding of nomenclature consists of replacing letters and Roman numerals with Arabic numerals. In this case, the letters are replaced by their serial numbers in the alphabet. The numbers of belts and columns of the 1:1,000,000 map are always indicated by two-digit numbers, for which a zero is added to the single-digit numbers in front. The numbers of the 1:200,000 map sheets within the 1:1,000,000 map sheet are also designated by two-digit numbers, and the numbers of the 1:100,000 map sheets are indicated by three-digit numbers (one or two zeros are assigned to the front of single-digit and two-digit numbers, respectively).

Knowing the nomenclature of maps and the system for its construction, you can determine the scale of the map and the geographic coordinates of the corners of the sheet frame, that is, determine which part of the earth's surface a given map sheet belongs to. And, conversely, knowing the scale of the map sheet and the geographic coordinates of the corners of its frame, you can establish the nomenclature of this sheet.

To select the necessary sheets of topographic maps for a specific area and quickly determine their nomenclature, there are special prefabricated tables:

Composite tables are schematic blank maps of a small scale, divided by vertical and horizontal lines into cells, each of which corresponds to a specific sheet of a map of the appropriate scale. The prefabricated tables indicate the scale, signatures of meridians and parallels, designations of columns and zones of the map layout 1:1,000,000, as well as the rank order of the sheet numbers of larger scale maps within the sheets of the millionth map. Prefabricated tables are used when drawing up applications for the necessary maps, as well as for geographical recording of topographic maps in troops and in warehouses, and drawing up documents on the cartographic provision of territories. A stripe or area of troop operations (route of movement, area of exercises, etc.) is plotted on the composite table of maps, then the nomenclature of sheets covering the stripe (area) is determined. For example, in an application for map sheets 1:100,000 of the area shaded in the figure, it is written O-36-132, 144, 0-37-121, 133; N-36-12, 24; N"37-1, 2, 13, 14.