Perhaps the most successful among them were the CIA projects to erase the identity of Bluebird (aka Artichoke, 1951-1953) and MKULTRA (MKSEARCH, 1950-60s). Their main participants were unresponsive patients of neurological clinics, and most of them knew nothing about these experiments. Bluebird's mission was to create the perfect truth serum. Using psychotropic substances and electric shock, researchers induced artificial amnesia in test subjects, implanted them with false memories and “multiplied” their personalities.
The MKULTRA project was incomparably more expensive and global. He explored all the variety of ways to influence the mind (including children's): from biological to radiological. For example, within the framework of one of 149 subprojects, more than one and a half thousand US soldiers received psychotropic drugs with food to assess combat effectiveness “under substances.” The information obtained within the framework of MKULTRA is used today in the work of the intelligence services, despite the fact that back in 1972 the project was abandoned due to a scandal, and most of its documentation disappeared forever, which made its investigation impossible.
For a handful of shekels
Experiments on those repaying their debt to their homeland have appeared even in the Israeli army, which declares concern for soldiers. In 2007, it became known that in 1998-2006, within the framework of the secret projects "Omer-1" and "Omer-2", Israeli military doctors were searching for a vaccine against bacteriological weapons, similar to anthrax. The 716 soldiers participating in the experiments were not told anything about the risks and likely consequences of the experiments, and were prohibited from discussing the details of the research with their families.
In 2007, a group of former experimental subjects suffering from various consequences of the experiment (tumors, ulcers, bronchitis, epilepsy) contacted the Ministry of Defense with complaints about their ruined health. They were supported by the doctors' union and Physicians for Human Rights, which went all the way to the Supreme Court demanding an investigation. The effect was achieved, only the opposite: the court not only rejected the request, but also prohibited the publication of part of the information about the experiment.
The army fluctuated between the reactions “nothing happened” and “you yourself agreed.” The press was informed that the participants in the “Omers” were exclusively volunteers who knew what they were getting into and could leave the game at any time. The victims were recommended to contact civilian medical institutions, where their treatment promised to be lengthy, since the victims did not have even the minimum information about the influences used on them.
The main developer of the experiment program, Dr. Avigdor Sheferman (former director of the Israel Biological Institute), after its completion, left for Canada to conduct similar research in a medical company. Well, the results of the “Omers” were transferred to the American army for several hundred million shekels.
A good syphilitic is a black syphilitic
The USA will lead our list. It was here that, from 1932 to 1972, an experiment took place that can be considered both a symbol of racial segregation and medical barbarism. The southern town of Tuskegee in Alabama was chosen as the location. The medical team led by Dr. Clark Taliaferro was given the goal of studying all stages of syphilis.
The study consisted of observing a group of already infected blacks. Why blacks? There's hardly any need to explain. For many years after the events described, they were considered second-class citizens; moreover, they were less educated and more suggestible. Most of them did not know about their illness - this was a condition of the experiment. All manipulations were passed off as “treatment for bad blood.” When the experiment ended, out of 399 participants, 74 remained alive. 128 people died from syphilis and its complications. 40 men infected their wives, and 19 children were born with congenital syphilis.
And in 1946, the experiment expanded further. Some of the doctors were “landed” to Guatemala, where for two years they deliberately infected soldiers, prostitutes, prisoners, tramps and the mentally ill with syphilis. Total up to 5000 people.
Only in 1972, after a speech by a concerned physician in Washington Star A special commission took up the Tuskegee research and found it unfounded. The American government allocated $9 million to help those who survived, and 25 years later their relatives received an apology from President Bill Clinton. The Latin American trace was discovered only in 2010 thanks to the publication of the notes of Dr. Cutler, one of those who worked on the Tuskegee program in Guatemala. 750 victims from Guatemala then sued Johns Hopkins University, and Barack Obama apologized to the people of Guatemala in the person of President Alvaro Coloma.
American field of experiments
It must be said that scientists from the United States have always not particularly spared their great nation. American chemists tested the poisonous effect of mustard gas on recruits (it was necessary to improve gas masks), and sprayed toxic compounds over several Canadian and American cities. In the 1950s, epidemics were artificially induced in Florida and Georgia. In the late 1960s, the New York and Chicago subways studied the vulnerability of passengers to hidden biological attacks, for which they launched a hay stick underground. In 1963-1969, the Pentagon, without warning, dropped several types of chemical and bacteriological weapons onto its Navy ships.
Over the years, radiation researchers treated adenoids with radium rods, and stomach cancer with plutonium injections (the diagnoses were fabricated), fed expectant mothers radioactive iron salts under the guise of a vitamin drink, exploded nuclear bombs in Nevada and the Marshall Islands, exposed pregnant women to radioactive iodine, They fed the babies with it.
Monsters Among Orphans
Children in general have always been the most desirable audience for scientists. “A study of the influence of value judgments on verbal fluency in children,” conducted in 1939 at the University of Iowa, is known in the literature as the Monster study - a monstrous experiment, although it did not provoke mass deaths or disabilities, but included only verbal influence.
Psychologist Wendell Johnson and his graduate student Mary Tudor selected 22 children from an orphanage. of different ages, and for the next five months Tudor visited each of them regularly for 45-minute conversations. Some of the boys loved her visits because Mary praised them for their reading abilities and good speech. Others, after a couple of meetings, began to have problems with speech, communication, behavior and school performance, because the researcher ridiculed them in every possible way during one-on-one meetings and reproached them for mistakes in speech.
It must be said that Johnson was guided by a completely scientific, and not perverted, interest. The true causes of stuttering have not been established to this day. He believed that it could be provoked even in the absence of physiological prerequisites.
Colleagues at the University of Iowa today call Johnson and Tudor's work the most comprehensive body of data on stuttering, including the first information about the role of the feelings and thoughts of a stutterer. Well, the traumatized children lived with vaccinated complexes until old age.
After completing the study, Mary Tudor returned to the orphanage several times, repenting and hoping to restore the children's self-esteem. The university remained silent about the research until 2001, but when the press picked up the trail, it issued an official apology to the victims. In 2003, six of them filed a claim with the state prosecutor for compensation for moral damages, and four years later they received $925,000 for all of them.
Complete eradication of homosexuality in a single country
But the victims of Aubrey Levin’s homophobic experiments still cannot count on any satisfaction or at least an official investigation. From 1970 to 1989, the army was “cleansed” of homosexuals in South Africa. Official data speaks of a thousand victims as a result of it, but no one knows the real figure. The program was published in 1995 in a South African newspaper Daily Mail and Guardian. In an interview with the publication, the project leader - former chief psychiatrist of the military hospital Aubrey Levin - stated: “We did not hold people like guinea pigs. We only had patients who wanted to be cured and did it absolutely voluntarily." He also said that he practiced aversion therapy on gay soldiers, but did not use electric shock. What was happening in South Africa?
In the 1970s and 80s, as part of the program to eradicate homosexuality, about 900 sexual reorientation operations took place in South African hospitals. Some patients were “treated” with drugs and hormones, others were subjected to radical methods: for example, aversive treatment (hence the name of the project “Aversion”), that is, disgust treatment. During it, an unacceptable form of behavior is reproduced (for example, arousing a gay man with pornographic pictures), at the same time the patient is given unpleasant sensations (for example, pain from an electric shock), then a positive stimulus is given (a photo of a naked woman) without exposure to electricity.
Traditional practice allows aversive treatment as a last resort, but even then the unpleasant effect should be equal in force to a pinprick, and not to knock off a person's shoes, as was the case in Lewin's experiments. The extreme measure of “Aversion” provided for castration or forced sex change, and many of those who suffered this chose suicide instead of living in someone else’s body. As a result, the “scientific” part of the project, which does not have any evidence base, was a fiasco. And its inspirers got away with nothing but discussions with their conscience.
However, sometimes pangs of conscience are enough.
Conscience: taken intravenously
Not everyone knows that the achievements of Soviet scientists in the development of poisons surpassed even the level achieved in Nazi experiments. In the “Special Office” (“Laboratory No. 1”, “Laboratory X”, “Chamber”) - a toxicological laboratory created in 1921 in the OGPU-NKVD, under the leadership of Professor Grigory Mayranovsky, a search was conducted for several years for poisons that could not be identified . The tests were conducted on death row prisoners: ten people for each drug (this does not count experiments on animals).
The agony of those who did not die immediately was observed for 10-14 days, then finished off. The poison we were looking for was eventually found. Carbylaminecholine chloride, or K-2, killed in 15 minutes and without leaving a trace: independent pathologists diagnosed death from heart failure. In addition to K-2, Mairanovsky worked on the “problem of frankness” during interrogations through medicines, developed dust-like poisons that kill when inhaled...
The total number of victims brought to science in “Laboratory No. 1” ranges from 150 to 300 people (among them not only criminals, but also prisoners of war), and these include the employees of the “Camera”. Years later, the convicted Mairanovsky wrote that two of his colleagues committed suicide, two more lost their ability to work, and three became alcoholics.
Testicles of eternal youth
Probably, the creation of the ideal poison will always be relevant along with the search for the philosopher's stone and the fountain of youth. Let's say, our beloved Professor Preobrazhensky from " Heart of a Dog" practiced a method of rejuvenation that was not at all unique, but quite common for the 1920s. His living prototype could be called the American doctor Leo Stanley, if not for the difference in mentalities. The prison chief physician from San Quentin (California) was a supporter of eugenics and tried different ways to purify the human race: plastic surgery (for from external ugliness comes internal, and vice versa), manipulation of the gonads and, finally, sterilization.
Since 1918, he conducted experiments on rejuvenation: he transplanted the testicles of young executed criminals into elderly prisoners. Human material quickly became scarce, and animals were used: the testicles of goats, wild boars and deer. From these, Stanley prepared a suspension and injected it under the skin of the subjects. Judging by his reports, they noted “a surge of strength and improved well-being.” Whether this was a placebo effect or a rejuvenation effect, we do not know, but the doctor promised the prisoners the latter.
Another goal of his research was to confirm the hypothesis that criminal behavior depends on hormonal problems. The solution to both was achieved by the practice of sterilization. By 1940, Stanley had subjected 600 prisoners to it. Some of them simply did not want to have children, some dreamed of rejuvenating themselves (the doctor presented sterilization as a rejuvenating and healing remedy), and for others Stanley promised a relaxation of the regime. However, his true goal was to pacify the “criminal” genes and sexual instinct, which pushes the criminal to relapse. He continued his research until 1951, and given his contribution to the reform of medical institutions, this activity does not seem completely pointless.
"Hostel" door Dr. Cotton
In contrast to the research of the psychiatrist himself, Alzheimer's student Henry Cotton, already at the age of 30 (since 1907), directed a psychiatric hospital in Trenton (New Jersey). The chair of the chief physician provided him with ample opportunities for practical testing of his hypothesis about the source of mental disorders. He believed that people were driven crazy by infection, and its source was, first of all, diseased teeth. They are very close to the brain! So the first procedure that Cotton's crazy (and not so crazy) patients went through was tooth extraction.
If it did not help, the infection was looked for further by poking (or cutting): in the palatine tonsils, gallbladder, intestines, stomach, testicles, ovaries... Even Cotton’s family did not escape “surgical bacteriology” (this is the author’s name for the method). He pulled out the teeth of his wife, two sons and himself, of course. The prerequisite for the latter was a nervous breakdown due to an investigation launched in his hospital by a commission from the state Senate.
Despite data on the high effectiveness of the method (85 percent of those healed), which the doctor himself actively disseminated in speeches and articles, and the high popularity of the Trenton hospital (even the rich and famous sent their loved ones there for big money), in 1924 the board of trustees sensed something was wrong and turned to Johns Hopkins University for advice. Dr. Phyllis Greenacre, sent to the hospital to check the statistics, found that only 8 percent of Cotton's patients recovered, 41.9 percent did not improve, and 43.4 percent died. Moreover, 8 percent are those who were not treated, and just 43.4% of the dead experienced Cotton’s practice.
An investigation by a commission formed by the state Senate was supposed to find out the true reasons for this state of affairs, but it only managed to begin its work. Eminent colleagues and even politicians stood up for Cotton, so he calmly returned to work, and five years later he retired with honor. There were no hunters to continue his work.
Good news
What to do now with such news about the dark sides of scientific curiosity? In the summer of 2014, English-speaking users of the social network Facebook were surprised to learn that 689,003 of them had quietly played the role of test subjects in a joint experiment between American scientists and their favorite social network. Results published in a scientific journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, stated: “Emotional states can be transmitted to other people through emotional contagion, as a result of which they may, without realizing it, experience the same emotions.” This means that joy and despondency are equally contagious. Even the absence of direct contact does not prevent infection. The experiment was simple: one group of subjects had their news feed diluted with positivity, while the other group was given more negativity. Users responded immediately: the lucky ones with “fun” feeds themselves began to make optimistic entries on the page, and the group, attacked by depressive posts, began to post negative ones.
Activists criticized the researchers' methods and even suggested that for some, the negative content was the last straw. But with equal success, an outside positive in the feed could revive hope in someone... In general, both can be perceived as a small step forward to improve the methods of manipulating the audience. So question and analyze everything that comes to your attention, while not forgetting about the likelihood of being part of someone’s experiment at any moment.
September 14 marked the 50th anniversary of the tragic events at the Totsky training ground. What happened on September 14, 1954 in the Orenburg region was surrounded by a thick veil of secrecy for many years.
At 9:33 a.m., an explosion of one of the most powerful nuclear bombs of that time thundered over the steppe. Next on the offensive - past forests burning in a nuclear fire, villages razed to the ground - the "eastern" troops rushed into the attack.
The planes, striking ground targets, crossed the stem of the nuclear mushroom. 10 km from the epicenter of the explosion, in radioactive dust, among molten sand, the “Westerners” held their defense. More shells and bombs were fired that day than during the storming of Berlin.
All participants in the exercises were required to sign a non-disclosure of state and military secrets for a period of 25 years. Dying from early heart attacks, strokes and cancer, they could not even tell their attending physicians about their exposure to radiation. Few participants in the Totsk exercises managed to survive to this day. Half a century later, they told Moskovsky Komsomolets about the events of 1954 in the Orenburg steppe.
Preparing for Operation Snowball
“The entire end of summer, military trains from all over the Union were coming to the small Totskoye station. None of those arriving - not even the command of the military units - had any idea why they were here. Our train was met at each station by women and children. Handing us sour cream and eggs, women they lamented: “Dear ones, you’re probably going to China to fight,” says Vladimir Bentsianov, chairman of the Committee of Veterans of Special Risk Units.
In the early 50s, they were seriously preparing for the Third World War. After tests carried out in the USA, the USSR also decided to test a nuclear bomb in open areas. The location of the exercises - in the Orenburg steppe - was chosen due to its similarity with the Western European landscape.
“At first, combined arms exercises with a real nuclear explosion were planned to be held at the Kapustin Yar missile range, but in the spring of 1954, the Totsky range was assessed, and it was recognized as the best in terms of safety conditions,” Lieutenant General Osin recalled at one time.
Participants in the Totsky exercises tell a different story. The field where it was planned to drop a nuclear bomb was clearly visible.
“For the exercises, the strongest guys from our departments were selected. We were given personal service weapon - modernized machines Kalashnikov, rapid-fire ten-shot automatic rifles and R-9 radios,” recalls Nikolai Pilshchikov.
The tent camp stretches for 42 kilometers. Representatives of 212 units arrived at the exercises - 45 thousand military personnel: 39 thousand soldiers, sergeants and foremen, 6 thousand officers, generals and marshals.
Preparations for the exercise, code-named “Snowball,” lasted three months. By the end of summer, the huge Battlefield was literally dotted with tens of thousands of kilometers of trenches, trenches and anti-tank ditches. We built hundreds of pillboxes, bunkers, and dugouts.
On the eve of the exercise, officers were shown a secret film about the action nuclear weapons. “For this purpose, a special cinema pavilion was built, into which people were admitted only with a list and an identity card in the presence of the regiment commander and a KGB representative. Then we heard: “You have a great honor - for the first time in the world to act in real conditions of using a nuclear bomb.” It became clear , for which we covered the trenches and dugouts with logs in several layers, carefully coating the protruding wooden parts with yellow clay. “They should not have caught fire from light radiation,” recalled Ivan Putivlsky.
“Residents of the villages of Bogdanovka and Fedorovka, which were 5-6 km from the epicenter of the explosion, were asked to temporarily evacuate 50 km from the site of the exercise. They were taken out by troops in an organized manner; they were allowed to take everything with them. The evacuated residents were paid daily allowances throughout the entire period of the exercise,” - says Nikolai Pilshchikov.
“Preparations for the exercises were carried out under artillery cannonade. Hundreds of planes bombed designated areas. A month before the start, every day a Tu-4 plane dropped a “blank” - a mock-up of a bomb weighing 250 kg - into the epicenter,” recalled exercise participant Putivlsky.
According to the recollections of Lieutenant Colonel Danilenko, in an old oak grove, surrounded by mixed forest, a white limestone cross measuring 100x100 m was made. The training pilots aimed at it. The deviation from the target should not exceed 500 meters. Troops were stationed all around.
Two crews trained: Major Kutyrchev and Captain Lyasnikov. Until the very last moment, the pilots did not know who would be the main one and who would be the backup. Kutyrchev’s crew, who already had flight testing experience, had an advantage atomic bomb at the Semipalatinsk test site.
To prevent damage from the shock wave, troops located at a distance of 5-7.5 km from the epicenter of the explosion were ordered to remain in shelters, and further 7.5 km - in trenches in a sitting or lying position.
On one of the hills, 15 km from the planned epicenter of the explosion, a government platform was built to observe the exercises, says Ivan Putivlsky. - It was painted the day before oil paints in green and white colors. Surveillance devices were installed on the podium. To the side of it from the railway station, an asphalt road was laid along the deep sands. The military traffic inspectorate did not allow any foreign vehicles onto this road."
“Three days before the start of the exercise, senior military leaders began to arrive at the field airfield in the Totsk area: marshals Soviet Union Vasilevsky, Rokossovsky, Konev, Malinovsky, recalls Pilshchikov. - Even the defense ministers of the people's democracies, generals Marian Spychalski, Ludwig Svoboda, Marshal Zhu-De and Peng-De-Huai arrived. All of them were housed in a government town pre-built in the area of the camp. A day before the exercises, Khrushchev, Bulganin and the creator of nuclear weapons, Kurchatov, appeared in Totsk.”
Marshal Zhukov was appointed head of the exercises. Around the epicenter of the explosion, indicated by a white cross, there was a Combat vehicles: tanks, planes, armored personnel carriers, to which “landing troops” were tied in trenches and on the ground: sheep, dogs, horses and calves.
From 8,000 meters, a Tu-4 bomber dropped a nuclear bomb on the test site
On the day of departure for the exercise, both Tu-4 crews prepared in full: nuclear bombs were suspended on each of the planes, the pilots simultaneously started the engines, and reported their readiness to complete the mission. Kutyrchev's crew received the command to take off, where Captain Kokorin was the bombardier, Romensky was the second pilot, and Babets was the navigator. The Tu-4 was accompanied by two MiG-17 fighters and an Il-28 bomber, which were supposed to conduct weather reconnaissance and filming, as well as guard the carrier in flight.
“On September 14, we were alerted at four o’clock in the morning. It was a clear and quiet morning,” says Ivan Putivlsky. “There wasn’t a cloud in the sky. We were taken by car to the foot of the government podium. We sat tight in the ravine and took pictures. The first signal was through loudspeakers. government rostrum sounded 15 minutes before nuclear explosion: "The ice has broken!" 10 minutes before the explosion we heard the second signal: “Ice is coming!” We, as we were instructed, ran out of the cars and rushed to pre-prepared shelters in the ravine on the side of the stand. We lay down on our stomachs, with our heads facing the direction of the explosion, as taught, with our eyes closed, our hands under our heads and our mouths open. The last, third signal sounded: “Lightning!” A hellish roar was heard in the distance. The clock stopped at 9 hours 33 minutes."
The carrier aircraft dropped the atomic bomb from a height of 8 thousand meters on the second approach to the target. The power of the plutonium bomb, code-named “Tatyanka,” was 40 kilotons of TNT—several times more than the one that exploded over Hiroshima. According to the memoirs of Lieutenant General Osin, a similar bomb was previously tested at the Semipalatinsk test site in 1951. Totskaya "Tatyanka" exploded at an altitude of 350 m from the ground. The deviation from the intended epicenter was 280 m in the northwest direction.
At the last moment, the wind changed: it carried the radioactive cloud not to the deserted steppe, as expected, but straight to Orenburg and further, towards Krasnoyarsk.
5 minutes after the nuclear explosion, artillery preparation began, then a bomber strike was carried out. Guns and mortars of various calibers, Katyusha rockets, self-propelled artillery units, and tanks buried in the ground began to speak. The battalion commander told us later that the density of fire per kilometer of area was greater than during the capture of Berlin, recalls Casanov.
“During the explosion, despite the closed trenches and dugouts where we were, a bright light penetrated there; after a few seconds we heard a sound in the form of a sharp lightning discharge,” says Nikolai Pilshchikov. “After 3 hours, an attack signal was received. The planes, striking strike on ground targets 21-22 minutes after the nuclear explosion, crossed the stem of a nuclear mushroom - the trunk of a radioactive cloud. I and my battalion in an armored personnel carrier followed 600 m from the epicenter of the explosion at a speed of 16-18 km/h. I saw it burned from root to top forest, crumpled columns of equipment, burnt animals." At the very epicenter - within a radius of 300 m - there was not a single hundred-year-old oak tree left, everything was burned... The equipment a kilometer from the explosion was pressed into the ground...
“We crossed the valley, one and a half kilometers from which the epicenter of the explosion was located, wearing gas masks,” recalls Casanov. “Out of the corner of our eyes we managed to notice how piston aircraft, cars and staff vehicles were burning, the remains of cows and sheep were lying everywhere. The ground resembled slag and some kind of monstrous whipped consistency. The area after the explosion was difficult to recognize: the grass was smoking, scorched quails were running, the bushes and copses had disappeared. I was surrounded by bare, smoking hills. There was a solid black wall of smoke and dust, stench and burning. It was dry and itchy in my throat and ears there was ringing and noise... The Major General ordered me to measure the radiation level at the fire burning out next to me with a dosimetric device. I ran up, opened the damper on the bottom of the device, and... the needle went off scale. “Get into the car!” the general commanded, and we drove away from this place, which happened to be close to the immediate epicenter of the explosion..."
Two days later - on September 17, 1954 - a TASS message was published in the Pravda newspaper: "In accordance with the plan for research and experimental work in last days The Soviet Union tested one of the types of atomic weapons. The purpose of the test was to study the effect of an atomic explosion. The testing obtained valuable results that will help Soviet scientists and engineers successfully solve problems of protection against atomic attack."
The troops completed their task: the country's nuclear shield was created.
Residents of the surrounding two-thirds of the burned villages dragged the new houses built for them log by log to the old - inhabited and already contaminated - places, collected radioactive grain in the fields, potatoes baked in the ground... And for a long time the old-timers of Bogdanovka, Fedorovka and the village of Sorochinskoye remembered strange glow from the wood. The woodpiles, made from trees charred in the area of the explosion, glowed in the darkness with a greenish fire.
Mice, rats, rabbits, sheep, cows, horses and even insects that visited the “zone” were subjected to close examination... “After the exercises, we only went through radiation control,” recalls Nikolai Pilshchikov. “The experts paid much more attention to what was given to us in "the day of training with dry rations, wrapped in an almost two-centimeter layer of rubber... He was immediately taken away for examination. The next day, all soldiers and officers were transferred to a regular diet. The delicacies disappeared."
They were returning from the Totsky training ground, according to the memoirs of Stanislav Ivanovich Casanov, they were not in the freight train in which they arrived, but in a normal passenger carriage. Moreover, the train was allowed through without the slightest delay. Stations flew past: an empty platform, on which a lonely stationmaster stood and saluted. The reason was simple. On the same train, in a special carriage, Semyon Mikhailovich Budyonny was returning from training.
“In Moscow, at the Kazansky station, the marshal had a magnificent welcome,” recalls Kazanov. “Our cadets of the sergeant school received neither insignia, nor special certificates, nor awards... We also did not receive the gratitude that Minister of Defense Bulganin announced to us anywhere later. ".
The pilots who dropped a nuclear bomb were awarded a Pobeda car for successfully completing this task. At the debriefing of the exercises, crew commander Vasily Kutyrchev received the Order of Lenin and, ahead of schedule, the rank of colonel from the hands of Bulganin.
The results of combined arms exercises using nuclear weapons were classified as “top secret.”
The third generation of people who survived the tests at the Totsky training ground lives with a predisposition to cancer
For reasons of secrecy, no checks or examinations of the participants in this inhumane experiment were carried out. Everything was hidden and kept silent. Civilian casualties are still unknown. Archives of the Totsk District Hospital from 1954 to 1980. destroyed.
“In the Sorochinsky registry office, we made a selection based on the diagnoses of people who died over the last 50 years. Since 1952, 3,209 people have died from cancer in nearby villages. Immediately after the explosion, there were only two deaths. And then there were two peaks: one 5-7 years after explosion, the second - from the beginning of the 90s.
We also studied immunology in children: we took the grandchildren of people who survived the explosion. The results stunned us: in the immunograms of Sorochinsky children there are practically no natural killer cells that are involved in anti-cancer protection. In children, the interferon system, the body's defense against cancer, actually does not work. It turns out that the third generation of people who survived nuclear explosion, lives with a predisposition to cancer,” says Professor Orenburg medical academy Mikhail Skachkov.
The participants in the Totsk exercises were not given any documents; they appeared only in 1990, when we were equal in rights to Chernobyl victims.
Of the 45 thousand military personnel who took part in the Totsk exercises, a little more than 2 thousand are now alive. Half of them are officially recognized as disabled people of the first and second groups, 74.5% have diseases of the cardiovascular system, including hypertension and cerebral atherosclerosis, another 20.5% have diseases of the digestive system, 4.5% have malignant neoplasms and blood diseases.
Ten years ago in Totsk - at the epicenter of the explosion - a memorial sign was erected: a stele with bells. On September 14, they will ring in memory of all those affected by radiation at the Totsky, Semipalatinsk, Novozemelsky, Kapustin-Yarsky and Ladoga test sites.
April 7th, 2015
We are used to thinking that cruel and inhumane experiments on people were carried out only in concentration camps Nazi Germany. Unfortunately, the truth is much worse - such experiments began to be carried out back in the 19th century, moreover, in the USA.
Here are some of them …
SCALPELS
Beginning in 1840, American physician James Marion Sims, considered the “founder of modern gynecology,” conducted a variety of surgical research. He used African slaves as experimental mice for his experiments, on whom he performed surgical operations WITHOUT anesthesia. One of the women was operated on this way 30 times! Slaves often died - but this did not stop the “scientist”. Dr. Sims also studied the causes of spasms of the chewing muscles in children - so he experimented on the children of black slaves, performing jaw operations on them using... a shoe awl.
BACTERIA
Another “pioneer” of American medicine, Dr. Arthur Wentworth, inserted a metal needle into the spinal cord of 29 children (the so-called “lumbar puncture”) to test how harmful it was. Moreover, the children’s parents did not even know what kind of experiments the “doctor” was conducting on their children.
From 1913 to 1951, the chief surgeon of the Californian San Quentin prison, Dr. Leo Stanley, conducted hundreds of experiments on prisoners. Stanley transplanted generative organs taken from executed criminals, wild boars and rams into criminals, carried out forced sterilization operations and other “scientific” experiments.
In the mid-1880s, a California doctor working at a leper hospital in Hawaii “in scientific purposes"infected six minor girls with the syphilis virus. Not far from him was the New York pediatrician Henry Heyman, who deliberately infected two mentally retarded boys with gonorrhea. IN scientific literature In the 19th and 20th centuries, about 40 experiments of this kind were described - when doctors deliberately infected children with sexually transmitted diseases.
But venereal diseases will seem like flowers if you remember the story of how American military doctors infected five Filipino prisoners with bubonic plague. And in 1906, Harvard University professor Richard Strong infected 24 Filipino prisoners with cholera (13 of them died).
In 1908, three Philadelphia doctors infected several dozen orphans with tuberculosis, causing some of them to go blind. In the published results of their research, these “doctors” referred to the children they maimed as “Material Used.”
There are a great many cases of deliberate infection of prisoners, mentally retarded patients and orphans. American “doctors” infected people with syphilis, molluscum contagiosum, malaria, herpes, hepatitis, transplanted cancer cells into them, etc.
BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS
Military doctors also managed to distinguish themselves in the field of conducting experiments on their own kind. In 1950, to simulate a germ warfare situation, two airplanes sprayed a large number of powder containing the bacteria Serratia marcescens. As a result, many city residents fell ill with pneumonia and died. Experiments with the bacterium Serratia marcescens continued until 1969.
In 1955, CIA "researchers" sprayed whooping cough bacteria into the Tampa Bay area of Florida, immediately causing a massive epidemic of the disease. At least 12 people have died.
In 1956 and 1957, the US military released millions of mosquitoes infected with yellow fever and dengue fever into the wild in Georgia and Florida. At the height of the outbreak, soldiers from the Pentagon, masquerading as civilian doctors, traveled to infected cities and photographed sick people for their reports.
American “researchers” did not shy away from conducting experiments on their own army. Thus, from 1963 to 1969, as part of the Ship Vulnerability and Defense (SHAD) project, several types of bacteriological and chemical weapons. Moreover, the crews of the ships did not suspect anything when the “native Pentagon” began to pour sarin, VX gas and cadmium salts on them.
In the late 1960s, the US military introduced Bacillus subway bacteria into the New York and Chicago subways. The experiment was proudly called “Studying the Vulnerability of Subway Passengers to Hidden Biological Attacks.”
RADIATION
In 1949, Operation Green Run was carried out in Washington state, during which an area of 2,000 square kilometers was contaminated radioactive isotopes iodine and xenon. There were three small towns on the territory, but this did not stop the military.
In 1953, the American Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) at the University of Iowa conducted experiments on pregnant women. They were exposed to radioactive iodine-131 to induce an induced abortion. In another experiment, AEC staff fed radioactive iodine to 25 newborns, and in another to 65 infants.
In 1946-1947, "researchers" at the University of Rochester gave six subjects small doses of uranium-234 and uranium-235 to find out how much radiation their kidneys could withstand.
From 1945 to 1947, 16 people were injected with plutonium-238 and plutonium-239 as part of the Manhattan Project. One of them was Albert Stevens, who was deliberately given a false diagnosis of stomach cancer and began to be “treated” with injections of plutonium (naturally, the patient was not told anything about plutonium). The ashes left after Albert's cremation are kept in several research institutes— it is still radioactive.
To see how radioactive materials penetrate the maternal placenta, in the mid-40s, “researchers” from Vanderbilt University gave 829 (!) pregnant women a solution of radioactive iron salts to drink. At the same time, women were told that it was a “vitamin drink.” Some newborns, like their mothers, developed cancer and died.
From 1948 to 1954, “scientists” at Johns Hopkins Hospital inserted radium rods into the noses of Baltimore schoolchildren as part of a government program. In total, 582 schoolchildren underwent this “adenoid treatment” procedure.
In 1954, as part of Project Bravo, the Americans dropped a nuclear bomb on the Marshall Islands, as a result of which 236 local residents were deliberately exposed to radiation. One of them died, the rest fell ill with radiation sickness.
In 1957, the military detonated another nuclear bomb in Nevada. According to some estimates, this resulted in from 1,000 to 20,000 deaths of ordinary Americans who were reached by the radioactive cloud.
CHEMISTRY
From 1942 to 1944, American military chemists tested the effects of mustard gas on American soldiers, a toxic substance with a blister effect on the skin. The “researchers” worked to improve the quality of gas masks; they were not interested in the health of recruits suffocating from mustard gas.
In 1950, warriors sprayed toxic compounds (including cadmium salts) over six American and Canadian cities.
Many have heard about the drug Agent Orange, which the US military used in Vietnam. The main active ingredient of Orange is the strongest carcinogen dioxin. Orange was produced by Dow Chemicals. To prove to the military that they were buying “the right thing,” Dow Chemicals conducted studies in which dioxin was administered to 70 American black prisoners.
PSYCHIATRY
In 1957, as part of the famous CIA project MK-Ultra, Dr. Evan Cameron began studying brainwashing techniques on mentally ill people. He put patients into an insulin coma, which could last up to 88 days, and then erased their memory with electric shock. One of this "researcher's" patients received a total of 360 electroshock sessions. Cameron's task was to develop a method for completely erasing a person's personality. He locked one of his charges in the ward and played a tape recording of a suggestive phrase on the speakers like “you are a good wife and mother, and people like to be in your company...”. The poor guy listened to this recording continuously for 100 days in a row.
As part of the same “MK-Ultra” in the late 60s, Professors Kligman and Copelan fed 320 prisoners at Holmesburg Prison with psychotropic substances in order to find out for each substance a dose sufficient to neutralize 50% of the enemy personnel.
From 1940 to 1953, Laretta Bender, a highly respected specialist in child psychiatry in the United States, was engaged in testing the effects of electric shock on hundreds of children in one of the New York hospitals. Laretta gave some children with schizophrenia two sessions of electric shock a day for three weeks.
A broad program for the study of “special” interrogation methods began in 2002 - the main specialists in the development of methods were James Mitchell and Bruce Lessen, who took the phenomenon of acquired helplessness as a basis.
Experimental studies of this condition were carried out on the basis of Pavlov's classical conditioning - that is, only on dogs. But the specialists had a contract, the purpose of which was to develop methods for extracting information from people, so they began experiments on people, without really thinking about the legality or moral and ethical side of such activities...
But this was hardly the only known US program to conduct experiments on humans.
Unfortunately, anyone who talks about human experiments carried out by Americans is perceived by others as a crazy conspiracy theorist, inventing unprovable nonsense, and in order to destroy this stereotype, the guys from Vice decided to collect the most high-profile programs of such experiments that have taken place.
In the best traditions Cold War, the US military loved to test various strategies on its own people. Military research often requires the initiation of a “controlled” attack, and it was for this purpose that experimenters once exposed thousands of American soldiers to mustard gas, and Navy personnel, for example, were studied on the effect of nerve gas on the human body - the substance was simply sprayed on the deck and inside ventilation system without the consent of the ship's crew.
One that received a lot of publicity at the time was Operation LAC (Large area coverage) - a series of tests between 1957 and 1958, which consisted of spraying large volumes of a “mixture” of cadmium sulfide and zinc sulfide over certain regions of the United States from aircraft and water transport. Without notifying the residents of the sprayed cities and states, of course.
Some of the regions over which the experimental composition was sprayed had a high population density. Later, when the information was declassified, frightened scientists decided to re-examine the results of the operation and discovered that the tests were “not at all dangerous.”
In 1950, the same innovators from the US military-industrial complex decided to test the “efficacy” of the bacterium Serratia marcescens by spraying it over San Francisco. A little later, one of the residents of the city - Edward Nevin - died from an infectious heart lesion caused by the same Serratia marcescens.
Ten years later, American scientists decided to test the effects of Bacillus hay on passengers in the Chicago and New York subway systems by spraying the bacterium into the ventilation systems. As it turned out, such “biological weapons” turned out to be completely harmless. But it is unlikely that the military would test something, knowing that this “something” is completely harmless. And the very fact of violating ethical standards...
However, the results of Operation Whitecoat were not so modest. During the Korean War, those who did not want to serve and simply pacifists were often recruited to work as military doctors, and since 1953 they were given the opportunity to become medical guinea pigs and, having given these volunteers the nickname “white coats,” they began to be stuffed with experimental vaccines and bacteria. None of them died during the study itself at the Fort Detrick laboratory, but a decade after the study was wound down, a study followed the long-term impact: many of the then test subjects now experienced constant severe migraines and suffered from persistent asthma. And this, not to mention the fact that only ¼ of the original number of “white coats” remained alive.
The second terrible part of the Manhattan Project - besides, obviously, the destruction of two populated cities - was that its implementation spurred further research into the effects of radiation on the human body.
In addition to sending squads of infantrymen closer to the “nuclear mushrooms,” researchers did not hesitate to add small portions of radioactive substances directly into people’s bodies: some private and government research laboratories either simply injected volunteers with “nuclear energy” or fed them milk and beef, which in turn were a product of livestock on a “radioactive diet”. A 1986 Congressional report entitled "American Guinea Pigs: Three Decades of Radiation Experiments on US Citizens" names radioactive elements such as plutonium, polonium, radium and thorium.
In 1956 and 1958, tired, most likely, from experiments with radiation, the US Chemical, Biological and Radiation Defense Forces decided to release millions of mosquitoes over the states of Florida and Georgia to analyze the approximate rate of spread of amaryllium fever. It is worth noting that even then the presence of fever was observed in these regions, so scientists only needed to increase the number of carriers of the disease - the insects themselves were not infected.
Between the 1940s and 1970, the CIA guys killed over a hundred people and made many more mentally ill while trying to figure out how drugs (particularly LSD) could be used to control a person's mind.
SUMMARY
At the end of World War II, some fascists received a death sentence at the Nuremberg trials for their inhumane experiments. But in the USA they try not to remember their Nazi doctors. Most likely, everything described here is just the tip of the iceberg. It’s just that truly massive and terrible experiments have been classified a long time ago. It is not for nothing that in 1947, the already mentioned Atomic Energy Commission issued a document called “Medical Experiments on Humans,” in which it was written in black and white: “It is desirable that during experiments on humans no documents are drawn up that could cause negative public reaction... Documents containing similar information, should be classified."
To this day, not a single American official has been convicted of inhumane experiments on its own citizens. Many victims of these experiments have still not received not only any compensation, but even any complete information about what poisons and diseases were tested on them.
sources
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_States
http://www.ridus.ru/news/175010
Let's remember again how they were used. And here's another The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy was made -“Me and Others” is a 1971 popular science film. , directed by Felix Sobolev. The film consists of a series of socio-psychological experiments. The most famous experiment was on suggestibility, or conformity, carried out with preschool children.
This film lay on the shelf for many years because it revealed the secrets of influencing mass consciousness, which the system was actively using and is using. The experiments shown in this film explain the behavior of people and especially children. To be like everyone else is a natural desire of a child.
Experiment "Both White"
There are two pyramids on the table: black and white. Three children, by agreement with the experimenter, claim that both pyramids are white. The fourth child is tested for suggestibility. Most children agree and repeat that both pyramids are white. However, when a child is asked to take a black pyramid, he takes the black one, despite the fact that he has just called both white. In the seventies, the phrase "Both White" acquired a broad allegorical meaning in academic circles familiar with the film.
Scientist or killer
The psychologist (V. Mukhina) selects volunteers from the audience and invites them to a separate room, then calls them one by one. Everyone is shown the same portrait of an elderly man, only to some the psychologist says that he is a prominent scientist, while to others he presents him as a criminal. The test subjects' task is to compose psychological picture the person depicted in the portrait. Depending on how the person depicted was presented, subjects find in his facial features positive or negative signs inherent in scientists or criminals.
Attack
A lecture is given to the students. The lecturer explains that the testimony of witnesses should not be trusted, since people tend to make mistakes. Suddenly several people rush in, some fire machine guns into the air, others grab and take the lecturer away, then everyone quickly leaves. Of course, this is a dramatization. The lecturer returns unharmed and asks the students to describe the events that just happened. The students give the most varied and contradictory testimonies: who among the attackers was wearing what, who was armed with what, how the attackers took the lecturer away, and how many attackers there were in general. One student even “identified” one of the attackers, recognizing him with complete confidence as one of the police officers on duty.
Experiments show how a person can think out everything that he could not remember, and how people are able to succumb to the opinions of others, even reaching the point of absurdity. The experiments were prepared and conducted by Valeria Mukhina, candidate of psychological sciences.
Humanity has been experimenting since the forefathers picked up sharp stones and learned to make fire. Over centuries and millennia, accumulated knowledge multiplied and grew in geometric progression. The twentieth century was a turning point in all areas of science, which in turn became the impetus for many scientists to ask the question “what if?” More often than not, curiosity produced tangible results that could help the development of the human race. However, some representatives of the scientific community conducted experiments on people and other living beings that went far beyond the bounds of humanity. Here are ten of the craziest ones.
Russian scientist tried to create a human-chimpanzee hybrid
Chimpanzees are one of humans' closest relatives
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Russian biologist Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov became obsessed with what he considered a brilliant idea: to crossbreed humans and chimpanzees, creating viable offspring. In the first stage, he injected 13 female primates with human sperm. Fortunately for the outside world, not a single female became pregnant (which upset Ivanov). However, Ilya Ivanovich decided to approach the issue from the other side: he took monkey sperm and wanted to inject it into a woman’s egg.
According to Ivanov's theory, at least five women with fertilized eggs were needed for the experiment to be a success. Those around him did not share the researcher’s enthusiasm, and Ivanov found it increasingly difficult to find sources of funding. Suddenly, the “genius” was sent as a veterinarian to a small county, where he died a few years later, without money or fame. There were rumors that he managed to negotiate with one woman to inject chimpanzee sperm into the egg, but the result, apparently, was negative.
Pavlov was a real villain, despite his services to science
Pavlov experimented with best friends person
Academician Pavlov is known to many people thanks to dogs and bells (yes, there were such experiments, and pets diligently rang every time they wanted to get a treat) - in the 20s of the twentieth century, such observations were considered almost a breakthrough in psychology. However, the truth was far from an ideal understanding of the experiment: many people living at that time argued that Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was indifferent to psychology and his main subject of research was the digestive system. Electricity, psychotropic drugs and operations were needed only for empirical observation of physiological processes. Teaching activity also worried Pavlov little. We can say that he was obsessed with his hobby.
Pavlov's experiments can be called harsh and inhumane, but it was they that brought the academician the Nobel Prize in Physiology at the beginning of the twentieth century. As part of his experiments, he conducted “false feeding”: a hole, or “fistula,” was created in the dog’s throat, through which food was removed from the esophagus: no matter how much food the animal ate, the hunger would still not subside (the food did not enter the stomach). Pavlov made these holes throughout the esophagus to learn how the dog's digestive system worked. Not surprisingly, the test subjects were constantly salivating. Ivan Petrovich’s colleagues turned a blind eye to such inhumane methods of conducting experiments, but one should not forget about the scientist’s cruelty.
Scientists tested whether the head thinks after being cut off
Guillotine design
At the dawn of its existence, the guillotine was the most humane method of execution, so to speak. With its help it was possible to quickly and surely take a person’s life. Even compared to modern methods like the electric chair or lethal injection, the guillotine looks reassuring (although it is difficult to talk about such things from the perspective of someone for whom they are not intended). However, for the French during the Revolution, the idea that the head, separated from the body, would continue to suffer for some time and that life processes would continue to take place was unbearable. The first time people started talking about this was after the severed head started to blush. Now this would be easily explained with the help of physiology, but several centuries ago this event forced humanists to think about it.
The researchers conducted tests for pupil dilation and other head reactions immediately after the execution. None of the scientists could say with certainty whether blinking or muscle contraction was a reflex reaction or a conscious one. By the way, even now it is impossible to provide such information, since there is no way to conduct an experiment (it would require beheading more than a dozen people). However, people of science are confident that the brain will be able to live separately from the body for no more than a few hundredths of a second.
Japanese Unit 731 was created for vivisection and crossbreeding experiments
Block 731 from the air
If you hear about the horrors of World War II, it will most likely be about the Holocaust or the concentration camps of Nazi Germany. You may also hear about atrocities committed by USSR or US soldiers, but Japan rarely comes up in conversation. And this despite the fact that the country was an enemy of the Allies, and a very serious one at that. First of all, the Japanese military captured Chinese citizens and herded them into forced labor camps in tens of thousands. The Chinese were mocked and various experiments were carried out.
During the occupation of China, an institution called "Block 731" was created. Within its walls, scientists conducted countless experiments on prisoners. First of all, this concerned vivisection, that is, the dissection of a living person in order to study the work internal organs. Tens of thousands of people suffered from the cruelty of local rippers. The worst thing was that no anesthesia was used.
Josef Mengele tried to make conjoined twins from ordinary ones
Photo of Mengele during his activities in Germany
Mengele was a famous doctor in Nazi Germany who was obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the Aryan nation. He committed a huge number of crimes against humanity during his monstrous experiments on prisoners. He had a special passion for the twins, it was simply all-consuming. Some people believe that the experiments are still ongoing.
There is a village in Brazil where the number of twins is simply off the charts. Geneticists learned that most women in the settlement had one gene in common that increased the chance of having twins. Moreover, it began to appear after the war, when German emigrants arrived in this area. This led many people to speculate that Mengele was behind the anomaly. However, supporters of the theory did not provide any proven facts.
However, this is not the worst thing. Mengele tried to make a single organism out of two self-sufficient twins. Health problems began at the first stage of fusion of the circulatory system. None of Josef's subjects lived longer than a couple of weeks.
Star Trek fan father who tried to make his son bilingual
A few years ago, all of America laughed at a would-be father who wanted to teach his son to speak Klingon. His plans were to create conditions under which the son would communicate with his mother, friends and society on English language, and with his father - in a fictional language from the Star Trek universe. The experiment failed.
The father gave up the experience even before his child went to school. He stated that his son was well versed in Klingon and could report all surrounding events in it. The experiment ended due to the father's fear of violating US law. Now my son practically does not remember the made-up language.
The doctor drank a solution with bacteria to prove he was right
Marshall receiving the Nobel Prize
Physician and Nobel laureate Barry Marshall encountered a problem during his research in the mid-1980s: colleagues did not support his theory that stomach ulcers were caused not by stress, but by a special type of bacteria. All experiments on rodents failed, and Barry decided to resort to a last resort - to test the theory on himself, since it was impossible to find test subjects for ethical reasons. Dr. Marshall drank a bottle of a substance containing Helicobacter Pyolori.
Soon the scientist began to experience the symptoms he needed to confirm his theory. He soon received the coveted Nobel Prize. It is worth paying attention to the fact that Barry Marshall deliberately went to the trouble of proving to others that he was right.
Experiments on little Albert
Baby Albert and the nameless psychiatrist
A series of experiments carried out on a baby named Albert went far beyond the limits of morality and ethics. The doctor whose test subject was Small child, decided to test Academician Pavlov’s experiments on a human being. One area of his research was in the area of fears and phobias: he wanted to know how fear worked and whether it could be used as a stimulus for learning.
The doctor, whose name has not been made public, allowed Albert to play with various toys, and then began to scream loudly, stomp and take them away from the baby. After some time, the child began to be afraid to even approach his favorite objects. They say that Albert was afraid of dogs all his life (one of the toys was a stuffed dog). The psychiatrist repeatedly conducted his experiments on infants to prove that he simply could do it.
The United States sprayed Serratia Marcescens bacteria over several major cities.
Serratia Marcescens under a microscope
The government of the United States of America is accused of many inhumane experiments. Conspiracy theorists are confident that most mysterious diseases, terrorist attacks and other events with a large number of victims are the result of the activities of government agencies. Of course, most of these actions are hidden under the heading “Secret”. Some of the theories have evidence. Thus, in the mid-twentieth century, the US government studied the influence of the bacterium Serratia Marcescens on human bodies, and on its citizens. The authorities wanted to see how quickly the germ warfare could spread during an attack. The first testing ground city was San Francisco. The experiment was successful, but evidence of deaths began to appear, after which the program was closed.
The government’s mistake was to believe that the bacterium was safe for humans, but more and more sick people were admitted to hospitals. The authorities remained silent until the 70s, when President Nixon banned any field testing of bacteriological weapons. Although Pentagon representatives insisted that they considered the bacteria safe, the very fact of experiments on people is a monstrous example of the actions of those in power. There are no excuses for such behavior.
Psychological experiment Facebook
Facebook: the eminence grise of our time
Over the past 5 years, people have forgotten about the experiment social network Facebook held in 2012. During this experiment, the creators of FB showed one group of users only bad news and another only good news. Hundreds of thousands of people became experimental subjects. The company wanted to see if they could control people's perceptions through news feed posts. Big Brother's manipulation turned out to be so successful that even the creators themselves were afraid of the power that fell into their hands.
When the experiment became public, a real scandal broke out. Facebook management apologized to all those affected and promised to continue to monitor the news selection process to prevent this from happening. Despite the scandal and the decline in the level of trust in the social network, it is still the most popular in the world. I would like to believe that the lesson benefited Zuckerberg’s brainchild, because it has a colossal amount of personal information, with the help of which you can easily ruin someone’s life or force a person to do what he wants.
Humanity is inexorably moving into the future, which was depicted by science fiction writers in the mid-twentieth century. A brave new world is gradually being built, but its arrival is also marked by new experiments, such as a head transplant, which should take place in December 2017. What other experiments will be conducted that go far beyond the understanding of good and evil? And it’s scary to imagine what experiments the governments of the world are keeping silent about. Perhaps in the near future we will learn about such acts, in comparison with which the facts from this list will turn out to be childish pranks? Time will show.
2017-10-23T12:55:06+00:00 Oksanamo This is interestingThe most terrible and monstrous experiments on people in the USSR and other countries Humanity has been experimenting since the forefathers picked up sharp stones and learned to make fire. Over centuries and millennia, accumulated knowledge multiplied and grew exponentially. The twentieth century became a turning point in all areas of science, which...
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