Purpose of the lecture: consider issues of international cooperation in the field of ecology and explain the principles of such cooperation.
Lecture outline:
1. The concept of international cooperation.
2.International organizations
3. Participation of Kazakhstan in international environmental cooperation in the field of ecology.
Basic concepts: international cooperation in the field of ecology, international objects, environmental protection, principles of international environmental cooperation, interstate environmental council, specialized UN agencies in the field of environmental protection, UNEP, UNESCO, WMO, UITP, World Conservation Fund wildlife, Club of Rome, GREENPEACE.
Harmonization of international environmental relations is one of the main ways for the world community to overcome the environmental crisis. It is generally accepted that a strategy for exiting it can be implemented only on the basis of the unity of environmental actions of all states. Today, no country can solve its environmental problems alone or by cooperating with only a small group of countries. Clear coordinated efforts of all states are needed, coordination of their actions on a strict international legal basis. Nature knows no state boundaries; it is universal and united. Therefore, disturbances in the ecosystem of one country inevitably cause a response in neighboring countries. For example, if industrial enterprises Germany or England emit flue gases with an unacceptably high percentage of harmful impurities into the atmosphere, this negatively affects not only the ecological state of these countries, but also causes significant damage to the flora and fauna of neighboring Scandinavian countries. It is clear that all other components of the natural environment (river flow, marine areas, migrating animal species, etc.) do not recognize state borders. The high priority of the environmental factor in international relations is constantly increasing, which is associated with the progressive deterioration of the state of the biosphere. All the main components of the environmental crisis (the greenhouse effect, depletion of the ozone layer, soil degradation, radiation hazards, transboundary transfer of pollution, depletion of energy and other resources of the planet’s interior, etc.) become environmental imperatives and determine new norms and rules for interaction between states. There is every reason to believe that in the 21st century. ecology will become one of the highest priorities of the global system of international relations. Already, some government officials consider it expedient to create a supranational body that would manage the protection and rational use of the natural environment in all states and regions.
Objects of protection environment are divided into national (domestic) and international (global).
National (intrastate) objects include - land, water, subsoil, wild animals and other elements of the natural environment that are located on the territory of the state. States freely dispose of national objects, protect and manage them on the basis of their own laws in the interests of their people.
International objects of environmental protection- these are objects that are located either within international spaces: space, atmospheric air, the World Ocean and Antarctica, or move across the territory of various countries (migratory animal species). These objects are not within the jurisdiction of states and are not anyone's national property. They are developed and protected on the basis of various treaties, conventions, protocols, reflecting the joint efforts of the international community.
There is another category of international natural environment objects, which are protected and managed by states, but are registered internationally. This is, firstly, natural objects, representing unique value and taken under international control (reserves, National parks, reserves, natural monuments); secondly, endangered and rare animals and plants listed in the International Red Book and, thirdly, shared natural resources that are constantly or for a significant part of the year in the use of two or more states (the Danube River, the Caspian and Baltic Seas, etc.) .
One of the most important objects of international protection is Space. No country in the world has any rights to outer space. Space is the heritage of all humanity. This and other principles are reflected in the international Treaties on the use of outer space. In them, the international community recognized: the inadmissibility of national appropriation of parts of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies; inadmissibility of harmful effects on space and pollution of outer space. The conditions for rescuing astronauts were also agreed upon. To limit military use of space great importance had the Treaty on the Limitation of Anti-Ballistic Missile Defense Systems and the Soviet-American Agreement on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (START). World Ocean is also subject to international protection. It contains a huge amount of minerals, biological resources, energy. The transport significance of the ocean is also great. The development of the World Ocean should be carried out in the interests of all humanity
Attempts to formalize national claims to marine resources and spaces were made a long time ago and by the 50-70s. last century caused the need for legal regulation of the development of the World Ocean. These issues were addressed at three international conferences and culminated in the signing of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1973) by more than 120 countries. The United Nations Convention recognizes the sovereign right of coastal states to biological resources within a 200-mile coastal zone. The inviolability of the principle of free navigation was confirmed (with the exception of territorial waters, the external border of which is set at a 12-mile distance from the coast).
Antarctica rightly called the continent of peace and international cooperation. In 1959, the USSR, USA, England, France, Argentina and a number of other countries concluded the Antarctic Treaty, which proclaimed freedom scientific research, the use of this continent only for peaceful purposes, determined the international legal regime of Antarctica. New, more stringent measures to protect animals and flora, waste disposal and pollution prevention are reflected in the Protocol signed in October 1991 in Madrid following the results of international cooperation in Antarctica.
Another important international environmental protection facility is atmospheric air. The efforts of the international community are aimed primarily at preventing and eliminating the transboundary transfer of air pollutants and protecting the ozone layer from destruction.
International relationships in these matters are regulated by the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, the Montreal and Vienna Ozone Agreements, the Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents (1992) and other agreed documents. Special place Among the international conventions and agreements on air protection was the Moscow Test Ban Treaty of 1963 nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, outer space and under water, concluded between the USSR, USA and England, other agreements of the 70-90s. on the limitation, reduction and prohibition of nuclear, bacteriological, chemical weapons in different environments and regions. In 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was solemnly signed at the UN.
For the first time, the basic principles of international environmental cooperation were summarized in the Declaration of the Stockholm UN Conference (1972). IN modern understanding they are set out in the Declaration of the UN Conference in Rio de Janeiro (1992). These principles include, but are not limited to, the following ideas:
People have the right to a healthy and productive life in harmony with Nature;
Development for the benefit of the present generation should not be carried out to the detriment of the interests of the development of future generations and to the detriment of the environment;
States have the sovereign right to develop their own resources, but without harming the environment outside their borders;
Eradicating poverty and inequalities in living standards in different parts of the world is necessary to ensure sustainable growth and meet the needs of the majority of the population;
States shall cooperate to preserve, protect and restore the integrity of the Earth's ecosystems;
States shall develop and encourage public awareness and participation by providing widespread access to environmental information;
States adopt effective national environmental laws;
Environmental policies should not be used to unduly restrict international trade;
In principle, the one who pollutes the OS must bear financial responsibility for this pollution;
States notify each other of natural disasters or activities that may have harmful transboundary consequences;
War inevitably has a destructive impact on the process of sustainable development. Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and inseparable.
International organizations make it possible to unite the environmental activities of interested states, regardless of their political positions, highlighting environmental problems from the totality of all international problems. Russia actively participates in the work of many international environmental organizations.
The UN makes a great contribution to solving environmental problems. All its main bodies and specialized institutions participate in environmental activities.
UN specialized agencies in the field of environmental protection:
UNEP(UN Environment Program) has been operating since 1972 and is the main subsidiary body of the UN. Through the Economic and Social Council, UNEP annually reports on its activities to the UN General Assembly.
UNESCO(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) has existed since 1946 with the aim of promoting peace and international security, cooperation between states in the field of education, science and culture. The most famous area of activity is the scientific program “Man and the Biosphere” (MAB), adopted in 1970.
FAO(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), founded in 1945, deals with issues of food resources and agricultural development in order to improve the living conditions of the world's people.
WHO (World organization Healthcare) created in 1946, has the main goal of caring for people’s health, which is directly related to the protection of the environment.
WMO(World Meteorological Organization) - established as a specialized agency of the UN in 1951, whose environmental functions are primarily related to global environmental monitoring, including:
Assessment of transboundary transport of pollutants;
Study of the impact on the Earth's ozone layer.
ILO(International Labor Organization) is a specialized agency of the UN. Created in 1919 under the League of Nations with the aim of creating safe working conditions and reducing biosphere pollution, which often arises due to neglect of the working environment.
IAEA(International Agency for atomic energy) was established in 1957. It operates under an agreement with the UN, but is not its specialized agency. At the end of the 90s, there were several hundred (according to various sources, 200-500) non-governmental international organizations in the world that included environmental protection measures in their activities, and also showed interest in environmental problems.
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature - (from English. IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature)- created in 1948 in Fontainebleau (France). IUCN's work contributes to the implementation of the Washington Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES). IUCN is the initiator of maintaining the Red Data Books.
WWF(World Wildlife Fund) (from English. WWF- World Wide Fund for Nature)- the largest private international environmental organization, created in 1961, unites 27 national branches around the world (the Russian representative office was opened in 1994), as well as about 5 million individual members. The fund's activities consist mainly of providing financial support environmental measures; More than $12 million has already been invested in environmental projects in Russia.
MJO(International legal organization), created in 1968, pays great attention to the development of legal issues of OS protection.
Roman Club(RK) is an international non-governmental organization that has made a significant contribution to the study of the prospects for the development of the biosphere and the promotion of the idea of the need to harmonize relations between Man and Nature. The main form of its activity is the organization of large-scale research on a wide range of issues, mainly in the socio-economic field. The Club of Rome initiated work on the study of problems called “Global Problems”.
MES(International Environmental Court) was established on the initiative of lawyers at a conference in Mexico City in November 1994. In the practical environmental activities of the world community, disputes arise that require appropriate competent resolution. The panel of judges includes 29 environmental lawyers from 24 countries. Disputes in the International Environmental Court are considered on the principles of arbitration. The parties themselves decide whether to go to court and select three or more judges from among its members to consider the case, which is carried out on the basis international law OS, national legislation of the parties and precedents.
GREENPEACE(Greenpeace- "Green World")- an independent international public organization aimed at preventing environmental degradation, created in Canada in 1971. It has about 1.5 million members, 1/3 of which are Americans. Greenpeace has the status of a full member or official observer in a number of international environmental protection conventions; has branches in 32 countries, including in Russia its official representative office has been operating since 1992.
Most international non-governmental organizations deal with the protection of individual natural objects or types of natural resources. These include the International Council for the Conservation of Birds, International Federation for the Protection of Alpine Regions, European Federation for the Protection of Waters, etc.
The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Helsinki, August 1975), with the participation of European countries, the USA and Canada, adopted the Final Act, which reflects issues of political and environmental security. In order to implement the agreements reached, the following were later adopted:
International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (Brussels, November 29, 1969, as amended on December 18, 1971 and November 19, 1976);
Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modifications (Geneva, May 18, 1977);
The World Charter for Nature, adopted by the UN General Assembly (October 28, 1981), determined the priority areas of environmental activity of the international community and contributed to the formation of environmental policies of states at that time;
Vienna meeting of representatives of the states participating in the Meeting in Helsinki (Vienna, April 22, 1985), which adopted a final document containing, in particular, recommendations: reduce emissions into the atmosphere sulfur by 30% before 1995, as well as hydrocarbons and other pollutants; develop methods for hazardous waste disposal, alternative to disposal at sea; reduce the production of ozone-depleting substances; conduct research on the role CO 2 in global climate change;
Montreal Meeting (Montreal, September 16, 1987), at which representatives of 98 countries adopted an Agreement (Montreal Protocol) on the gradual phasing out serial production chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and prohibiting their release into the atmosphere;
London meeting (London, June 27-29, 1990), where representatives of almost 60 countries signed an additional (to the Montreal) protocol demanding a complete phase out of CFC production by the year 2000;
UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992), organized to take stock of 20 years of activities since the Stockholm Conference. The Conference was attended by 179 states and more than 30 international organizations; 114 heads of state and representatives of 1,600 non-governmental organizations met there. Five main documents were discussed and adopted in Rio:
- RIO Declaration on Environment and Development, 27 the principles of which determine the rights and responsibilities of countries in ensuring the development and well-being of people;
- UN Program of Action “Agenda 21”- a program on how to make development sustainable from a social, economic and environmental point of view;
- Statement of Principles on Forests relating to the management, protection and sustainable development of all types of forests vital to economic development and the conservation of all forms of life;
- Framework Convention on Climate Change, the goal of which is to stabilize the concentration in the atmosphere of gases that cause the greenhouse effect at levels that will not cause a dangerous imbalance in the planet’s climate;
- Convention on biological diversity», requiring countries to take action to conserve the diversity of living things and ensure equitable sharing of benefits from the use of biological diversity;
The Pan-European Conference of Ministers of the Environment (Sofia, October 1995) adopted final documents, the main of which are:
- ministerial declaration;
-environmental program for Europe;
Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto, Japan, December 1997), at which the Protocol to the Convention or the Kyoto Protocol was signed.
International Congress on Sustainable Development ( World Summit on Sustainable Development), 26.08 - 04.09.2002, Johannesburg, South Africa.
The upbringing and education of youth is a priority direction for the development of any society, regardless of the political system and economic formations. The global environmental crisis of modern technological civilization, which has matured on the threshold of the third millennium, forces humanity to create a system of continuous environmental education and training, the result of which would be the formation of environmental thinking - the ability to evaluate the results of its activities from the point of view of the impact on Nature. In this case, not only each direct (momentary) impact should be assessed, but also their long-term consequences affecting subsequent generations.
Environmental education of young people should begin in the family and continue in children's institutions (kindergartens, etc.), schools and universities. In accordance with the modern Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, environmental education, education and enlightenment are recognized as one of the means of implementing the state environmental policy of our country.
Kazakhstan's participation in international environmental cooperation is an integral element of its environmental policy. The active participation of Kazakhstan in the work on international programs, projects and conventions contributes, on the one hand, to the inclusion of the country in the global process of environmental activities, and on the other hand, Kazakhstan becomes an equal member of the world community and has the right to receive technical and financial assistance developed countries.
The Government and UNDP have developed the “Framework for Cooperation on Sustainable Development for 2000-2004.” An integral part of the framework for cooperation on sustainable development is the Program support document Kaz/00/005/A/01/99 - “Institutional Strengthening for Sustainable Development”. The purpose of the Cooperation Framework is to contribute to effective management environment, which is a condition for improving the environment, reducing conflicts and poverty, and ensuring sustainable development. The implementation of the Program will also help eliminate barriers to intersectoral and intradisciplinary cooperation aimed at sustainable development. It will promote Kazakhstan's involvement and participation in regional initiatives aimed at environmental management and sustainable development.
The “Cooperation Framework” follows from the Framework Program for the main directions of cooperation with Kazakhstan. As part of UNDP's corporate policy, the Framework for Cooperation adheres to its mandate and the traditional areas in which UNDP can provide support. Activities under the Program integrate the current commitments of UNDP and reflect the policies and priorities of the Government.
Achieving the goal of the Program “Institutional Strengthening for Sustainable Development” is associated with solving the following tasks:
1. Analysis, assessment and support of procedures for implementing international environmental conventions.
2. Analysis of environmental institutions and administrative frameworks. Recommendations for improving and strengthening environmental management capabilities.
3. Overcoming cross-sectoral barriers to cooperation for sustainable development. Supporting the development of Kazakhstan's Agenda 21.
4. Regional cooperation on environmental management and sustainable development.
The current state of affairs related to solving the problem of international environmental conventions is as follows. A UNEP Executive Committee has been created, including representatives from all sectors of civil society.
Together with international experts, a review of “The Effectiveness of Environmental Activities in the Republic of Kazakhstan” was prepared and published. The priority direction for the implementation of environmental policy in the field of international cooperation is our country’s accession to international conventions and agreements, followed by the adoption of practical measures to implement their provisions. In 2001, the Republic of Kazakhstan became a Party to the following international environmental agreements:
The Aarhus Convention is a convention on access to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters.
Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context.
Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents.
Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes.
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.
Proposals on Kazakhstan’s accession to the Copenhagen and Montreal Amendments, the Protocol on Water and Health to the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes were submitted to the Expert Council on Cooperation of the Republic of Kazakhstan with International Organizations.
The Government is considering a package of ratification documents under the Basel Convention. A package of ratification documents under the Bonn Convention is being agreed upon with ministries and departments. The Global Environment Facility has allocated funding for the implementation of projects of the Ozone Depleting Substances Elimination Program (in the amount of $3.9 million) and supporting activities under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (in the amount of $0.5 million). The national report of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the implementation of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification was reviewed and approved by the Convention Secretariat and the special Working Group.
Concentrating their efforts on a consolidated Institutional Strengthening Program for Sustainable Development, which includes interrelated activities at the political and institutional levels, the Government and UNDP support environmental projects. An important condition implementation of environmental projects is to attract international investments and grants. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Protection organized and held a number of meetings, seminars and donor conferences to attract potential donors, interested organizations, departments and enterprises to environmental projects. The country gets the opportunity to introduce new modern technologies into production, develop non-traditional types of energy production, and modernize production. Ministry of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan for the period 1997-2009. To solve environmental problems and within the framework of international environmental conventions, funds from international organizations and donor countries worth more than $100 million have been attracted to environmental projects.
The funds raised made it possible to solve a number of transboundary and socio-ecological problems of the Aral and Caspian regions contained in the National Program for the Development and Provision of Humanitarian Assistance to the Population of the Aral Sea Basin, and the Kazakhstan Program for the Development of the Caspian Sea Region. They are also used to fulfill the country's obligations under international environmental conventions - on climate change, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, on preserving biodiversity and combating desertification. In addition, by participating in the implementation of projects, the Republic gained access to a significant amount of scientific, methodological and technological information. Currently, MEP projects to address the most pressing environmental problems are at various stages of implementation. Active work is underway on a group of projects and, with the help of donors, the feasibility study development stage has begun or is already being completed.
Environmental projects are developed jointly with donor organizations and are at various stages: from development of technical specifications to implementation.
International cooperation on projects in the Caspian, Aral regions and the territory of the former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site:
Aral region. The following projects are expected to be implemented in the Aral region:
1. “Water supply, sanitation and health settlements Kyzylorda region".
2. “Water supply of Aralsk, Kyzylorda region”
3. “Pilot water supply project for Kazalinka/Novokazalinsk, Kyzylorda region.”
4. “Regulation of the river bed.” Syrdarya and the northern part of the Aral Sea."
The goal of the project is to ensure public health by improving water supply and sanitation systems. The project covers the areas of the region most affected by the Aral crisis.
General coordination of activities in the field of environmental protection and sustainable development in the region is entrusted to the Interstate Commission on Sustainable Development (ICSD), which is the working body of the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS).
Since 2000, when the chairmanship of the Commission was assigned to Kazakhstan on a rotating basis, the activities of the Commission have intensified significantly. Currently, the object of ICSD coordination is the Aral Sea Basin Rehabilitation Program and a number of regional projects. Preparations are underway for regional plans for the sustainable development of mountain areas, to combat desertification, to develop a network of nature reserves and national parks, as well as a “Regional Action Plan for Environmental Protection,” designed to consolidate the management of regional activities in Central Asian countries.
ICSD cooperates with many international donors - UNDP, GEF, UNEP, WB, GEF, TACIS, German KFW Foundation, Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, ADB, EBRD, USAID.
Caspian region.
The Caspian Environmental Program (CEP) was developed by the Governments of the five Caspian states (Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan) with the participation of international organizations (GEF, UNDP, UNEP, World Bank, TACIS). As part of the main activities of the Caspian Environmental Program:
The structure of the draft National Caspian Action Plan was developed and created working group on its preparation. The draft text of the Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea is at the approval stage.
The territory of the former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site.
As part of international cooperation between the UK and the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the project “Sustainable Land Use Strategy” was completed. The project budget was 601 thousand pounds sterling ($900,000). A complex of agricultural surveys was carried out on the southern part of the landfill with an area of 3-4 thousand hectares. km 2, provided by radiological examination. Kazakhstani partners are KIO NPTszem, INP and IRBE NNC RK. The projects “Environmental Monitoring” and “Purification of Groundwater from Aviation Fuel Pollution” have been accepted for consideration by the TACIS program.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the IAEA have prepared an appeal to donors for the allocation of funds to complete the project “Full radiological assessment of the Test Site” , however, the appeal was not sent out for unknown reasons.
Kazakhstan is a member of the Interstate Environmental Council of the CIS countries. The Republic of Kazakhstan, guided by the needs of a multi-vector policy within the framework of the Eurasian concept, is actively cooperating with European structures. Since 1997, Kazakhstan, along with other CIS countries, has been participating in the Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) “Environment for Europe” Program and was the executor of the Program for 2001-2003. for countries of Eastern Europe and CIS. Active cooperation within the framework of the TACIS program is carried out with the countries of the Common Market, providing mainly technical assistance in the field of environmental protection. Kazakhstan participated in the preparation of the UNEP Global Environmental Review, which contains an analysis of global environmental activities.
Conclusions:
Thus, international cooperation in solving global problems interaction between society and nature is an objective need of the era, a condition for the existence and progress of mankind. The prerequisite for international cooperation in solving global problems is, first of all, the biosphere itself, its unity which requires joint action both in influencing it and in protecting it. Kazakhstan is preparing cooperation agreements with other countries and participates in a number of interstate programs.
33. International cooperation
International cooperation is carried out in the areas of trade, customs, industrial, monetary and financial, and transport law.
Cooperation in the field of trade law. In order to regulate trade relations between states, a multilateral General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was concluded in 1947. According to the agreement, any customs and tariff benefit granted by one of the participating countries to another participating country automatically, by virtue of the most favored nation principle, applies to all other GATT participating countries. In 1964, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was established, which is an autonomous body of the UN. UNCTAD's main goal is to facilitate international trade, in particular trade in commodities, industrial goods and so-called invisible items, as well as in the field of trade-related finance. Particular attention is paid to the problems of trade preferences and other benefits for developing countries.
Cooperation in the field of industrial law. In order to promote the process of industrialization and provide technical assistance to developing countries, as well as coordinate all UN activities in the field of industrial development, the UN Industrial Development Organization was created in 1966, which has become a specialized agency of the UN since 1985.
Cooperation in the field of monetary and financial law. In 1945, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Monetary Fund were created as specialized UN agencies, within which almost all cooperation in the monetary and financial sphere at the global level is concentrated. The World Bank's goals are to promote the reconstruction and development of the economies of the Bank's member states, encourage private foreign investment, provide loans for the development of production, as well as promote the growth of international trade and maintain equilibrium in balances of payments. The purpose of the IMF is to promote international cooperation on issues related to currency and international trade, and to establish a multilateral settlement system for current transactions among member countries.
Cooperation in the field of transport law.
In 1975, the European Convention on Passenger Tariffs was adopted, with the aim of establishing a uniform tariff policy to promote the development of international passenger transport. There is also International Association railway congresses, founded back in 1884, whose functions include preparing and holding international congresses to discuss scientific, technical, economic and administrative problems.
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International environmental protection sites
Objects of environmental protection are divided into national (domestic) and international (global).
National (intrastate) objects include land, water, subsoil, wild animals and other elements of the natural environment that are located on the territory of the state. States freely dispose of national objects, protect and manage them on the basis of their own laws in the interests of their people.
International environmental protection objects are objects that are either located within international spaces (Space, atmospheric air, the World Ocean and Antarctica) or move across the territory of different countries (migratory species of animals). These objects are not within the jurisdiction of states and are not anyone's national property. They are developed and protected on the basis of various treaties, conventions, and protocols.
There is another category of international natural environment objects, which are protected and managed by states, but are registered internationally. These are, firstly, natural objects of unique value and taken under international control (reserves, national parks, reserves, natural monuments); secondly, endangered and rare animal plants listed in the international Red Book and, thirdly, shared natural resources that are constantly or for a significant part of the year in the use of two or more states (the Danube River, the Baltic Sea, etc.).
One of the most important objects of international protection is space .
No country in the world has any rights to outer space. Space is the heritage of all humanity. This and other principles are reflected in the international Treaties on the use of outer space. In them, the international community accepted: the inadmissibility of national appropriation of parts of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies; inadmissibility of harmful effects on space and space pollution.
The conditions for rescuing the astronauts were also agreed upon.
To limit the military use of space, the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and the Soviet-American Strategic Arms Limitation Agreements (START) were of great importance.
World Ocean is also subject to international protection. It contains a huge amount of minerals, biological resources, and energy. The transport significance of the ocean is also great. The development of the World Ocean should be carried out in the interests of all humanity.
Attempts to formalize national claims to marine resources and spaces have been made for a long time and 50-
70s last century caused the need for legal regulation of the development of the World Ocean. These issues were addressed at three international conferences and culminated in the signing of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1973) by more than 120 countries. The UN Convention recognizes the sovereign right of coastal states to biological resources in 2000-mile coastal zones. The inviolability of the Principle of free navigation has been confirmed (with the exception of territorial waters, the external border of which is set at a 12-mile distance from the coast).
Antarctica rightly called the continent of peace and international cooperation.
Another important international environmental protection site atmospheric air. The efforts of the international community are aimed primarily at preventing and eliminating the transboundary transfer of air pollutants and protecting the ozone layer from destruction.
International relations in these matters are regulated by the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, the Montreal (1987) and Vienna (1985) Ozone Layer Agreements, the Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents (1992) and other agreed documents.
A special place among the international conventions and agreements on the protection of the air basin had the Moscow Treaty of 1963 on the prohibition of nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space and under water, concluded between the USSR, the USA and England, and other agreements of the 70-90s. on the limitation, reduction and prohibition of tests of nuclear, bacteriological, chemical weapons in various environments and regions. In 1996, the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was solemnly signed at the UN.
U Russia's participation in international environmental cooperation. Our country plays a significant role in solving global and regional environmental problems. As the legal successor of the USSR, the Russian Federation assumed the treaty obligations of the former USSR to prevent environmental disaster, preserve the biosphere and ensure the development of mankind.
The main directions of international cooperation in Russia in the field of environmental protection are as follows: 1) state initiatives; 2) international organizations; 3) international conventions and agreements; 4) bilateral cooperation.
State initiatives for international cooperation in the field of environmental protection have a long history. Only in last years our country has put forward a number of constructive proposals for international cooperation for the purpose of environmental safety, for example, on environmental cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region (Krasnoyarsk, September 1988), on the protection of the Baltic marine environment (Murmansk, October 1987 .), on coordinating efforts in the field of ecology under the auspices of the UN (43rd Session of the UN General Assembly, December 1988).
The Russian Federation continues to play an active role in international environmental cooperation. In particular, important proposals to the participants of the conference in Rio de Janeiro (1992) were contained in the message of the President of Russia. The decisions of the Conference were approved in Russia and reflected in the Concept of the Russian Federation's transition to a development model. Russia also pays great attention to organizing international partnerships to solve the problems of such a transition.
International environmental organizations operate in almost all countries of the world. The governing bodies are concentrated primarily in the UN. The key function of organizing environmental activities in the UN system is carried out by the above-mentioned UNEP UN Environment Program. Russia actively cooperates in the field of environmental protection with UNEP and other organizations on issues of developing a strategy for protection against pollution, creating a global monitoring system, combating desertification, etc.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), renamed in 1990 the World Conservation Union, is very active in solving global environmental problems. The USSR became a member state in 1991, and now the Russian Federation continues this membership. Currently, IUCN has become one of the leaders in the development of biodiversity issues. At the initiative of the IUCN, the International Red Book of Rare and Endangered Species of Plants and Animals (in five volumes) was published.
Russia also pays a lot of attention to work in other specialized UN organizations that have a comprehensive environmental nature, in particular: UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), WHO (World Health Organization), FAO (UN food and agriculture). Russia's scientific ties with the IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) are being strengthened. Russia actively promotes the implementation of the main programs of the United Nations World Meteorological Organization (WMO), in particular the World Climate Program. Through WMO channels, Russia receives information about the state of the World Ocean, atmosphere, Earth's ozone layer and environmental pollution.
Russia continues to develop and deepen environmental cooperation along international conventions (treaties) and agreements on a multilateral basis. Over 50
international documents signed by the Russian Federation, as well as former USSR and accepted by it for execution, now regulate Russian environmental cooperation with other states.
Cooperation continues within the framework of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) and other agreements and treaties on the protection of the World Ocean. Much work is being done to implement) the Conventions: on the conservation of living resources in the Baltic Sea (1973); on international trade in species wild fauna and flora (1973); on the protection of the Black Sea (ratified in 1993); on wetland conservation
(1971) and many others. In July 1992, Russia became a member of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Speaking about international treaties concluded by Russia on a multilateral basis, one cannot fail to mention international cooperation with the CIS countries - former union republics of the USSR. The main document here is the intergovernmental Agreement on cooperation in the field of ecology and environmental protection, signed in Moscow in February 1992 by representatives of ten countries. ... ‘
On the basis of intergovernmental agreements, bilateral cooperation is developing with all border countries, including the CIS states, as well as with the USA, Great Britain, France, China and other states.
The most fruitful developments at present are Russian-American cooperation (the problem of Lake Baikal, measures to regulate water quality, the organization of nature reserves, etc.), Russian-German ties (environmental problems in the regions, the Lake Baikal region, exchange of radiological information, etc.), as well as cooperation with Scandinavian countries (environmentally friendly technologies, construction of water treatment facilities, protected areas on the Karelian Isthmus). In recent years, in conditions of insufficient financial support, the solution to environmental problems has been facilitated by the implementation of several Environmental projects with the financial support of the World Bank, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Global Environment Facility and other organizations.
Despite the successes achieved, to overcome the environmental crisis it is necessary to further develop and intensify international cooperation both on a bilateral and multilateral basis, including organizations of the UN system.
- International cooperation (English: international development) is voluntary assistance from a donor of one country (be it a state, local authorities or a public organization) to the population of another country. This population can receive assistance directly from the donor or through the mediation of his state, local authorities or local public organizations.
A universal form of organizing joint or mutually agreed production with the participation of foreign partners of two or more countries, based on the distribution of production, commercial cooperation, mutual guarantee of risks, general protection of investments and industrial secrets.
International cooperation covers very different areas of activity. Including:
*improving healthcare
*improving education
* improvement of environmental conditions
* reducing socio-economic inequality
* anti-terrorism activities
* improving communication quality.
Related concepts
The principle of forming an idea of the Russian Federation as a country favorable for tourism is primarily associated with strengthening ties between states and the development of national tourism resources. The international cooperation develops in two forms: on a bilateral and multilateral basis. The Russian Federation has concluded bilateral agreements on cooperation in the field of tourism with many countries. For example, according to the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the French Republic on cooperation in the field of tourism, the parties encourage the exchange of information in the field of tourism statistics, legal regulation, and tourism opportunities of states. Multilateral cooperation involves coordinating joint development activities international tourism between several countries.
As an example of support for the financial sector, one can also cite the international cooperation. For example, a consortium of 10 American and European banks decided in September 2008 to create a common fund of $70 billion to assist smaller financial institutions.
Related concepts (continued)
To overcome the environmental crisis, further development is necessary both on a bilateral and multilateral basis, including organizations of the UN system.
These Recommendations are recognized by the International monetary fund and the World Bank on an international anti-money laundering standard Money and financing of terrorism. The provisions of these documents, in fact, form the foundation international cooperation in the field of AML/CFT/FRA.
Interaction in international cooperation on military and border issues, including the implementation of prisoners by participating States international treaties on issues of reduction of armed forces and arms limitation;
With the development of a market economy, its structural transformations are intensively developing the service sector (transport, communications, trade and public catering, tourism, insurance, information and computing services, etc.), as evidenced by the growth of its share in GDP production, which is typical for all countries of the world. communities. Of particular importance for the Republic of Belarus is the development of the transport complex as an infrastructure link for the development of production, other types of services and effective entry into the international cooperation. Its share in the production of gross domestic product is about 7%, it includes 8.4 thousand organizations. The main volume of cargo transportation is accounted for by road transport, in second place is railway transport, and a small volume of cargo transportation is accounted for by inland water and air transport.
In Chapter VIII " The international cooperation» contains two articles pointing to international treaties of Russia in the field of tourism as the legal basis for international cooperation (Article 18) and legal status representative offices of the federal executive body performing the functions of providing government services in the field of tourism outside the Russian Federation. Chapter VIII.I “State supervision in the field of tourism activities” is represented by Article 19.1, which regulates the procedure state supervision in the field of tourism activities. Chapter IX “Final Provisions” includes three articles indicating: liability for violation of tourism legislation (Article 20); the moment the law comes into force (Article 21), the need to bring regulatory legal acts into compliance with this law (Article 22).
In making such a proposal, we proceeded from the fact that the separation of all transnational crimes into an independent section and chapter of the Criminal Code would adequately reflect their increased social (in this case, international) danger, would indicate the need for an adequate response to them with criminal policy measures, would be would be an important step towards the unification of criminal legislation, as well as a substantive prerequisite international cooperation in the fight against these crimes. Thus, Russia would be able to confirm “its commitment to the fundamental principle of international law - the principle of conscientious fulfillment of international obligations” and would continue to “further improve judicial activities related to the implementation of the provisions of international law at the domestic level,” as required by the Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation dated 10 October 2003 “On the application by courts of general jurisdiction of generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of the Russian Federation.”
On the other hand, these provisions are aimed at clarifying the Community’s competences in the field of international cooperation, which were of a subsidiary nature in relation to foreign policy EU member states.
The Rosatom Corporation is a complex version of the compilation of the rights of an economic entity and a management entity that has state and administrative powers. It was created for the purpose of pursuing state policy, implementing legal regulation, providing public services and managing state property in the field of nuclear energy use. The list of goals of its activities also includes the development and safe operation of organizations of the nuclear power industry and nuclear weapons complexes of the Russian Federation, organizations operating ships of the nuclear icebreaker fleet (nuclear technical service ships, ships with nuclear power plants), ensuring nuclear and radiation safety, non-proliferation of nuclear materials and technologies, development of nuclear science, technology and vocational education, implementation international cooperation in this area.
International public law. According to prof. K. A. Bekyashev, when defining public international law, most authors highlight such components as a set (system) of principles and norms; regulation of relations between states and other subjects of international law; regulation goals: solving pressing issues facing these entities. Thus, public international law is a set of norms that are a generally binding criterion for what is legally permitted and legally prohibited and through which governance is carried out. international cooperation in relevant areas or enforcement of compliance with international law.
