If Mussolini walked ordinary for Italian socialists by, he would certainly become one of the bright figures of Italian socialist parties - and no more. But Mussolini was (a) an unprecedented bastard and (b) outstanding politician
The creation and political formation of Italian fascism is inextricably linked with the name of Benito Mussolini.
When discussing this figure, it is necessary to avoid two "methodological temptations".
The first is to turn into a biograph of Mussolini.
The second - completely spoiled on biographical details, devote the article by analyzing the specifics of Italian fascism.
Of course, on my statement about the need to avoid these methodological temptations, I can answer: "It is easy to say - to avoid. But as?"
I understand the justice of this objection. But still I will try to "go through a razor blade." And I will start with the presentation of the minimum of historical and biographical material.
Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 in the village of Doviia in the province of Forlie. He is the son of a teacher (Isthive Catholithka) and a blacksmith (militant socialist, a fan of Bakunin and a member of the second international). Because of the disagreements of parents, Benito was not baptized. From his father he took the ideas of anarcho-syndicalism and anticleric beliefs. In the Church School, in which he was given in 1891, was distinguished by quick-tempered and was almost excluded. Later, after a number of conflicts, the mother translated him to another school.
On the last school year, Mussolini joined the Socialist Party and began writing articles for local socialist newspapers, and also received the first practice of public campaign speeches. After graduating from the gymnasium in 1901, he began working a teacher of junior classes in a nearby village. Here he headed the Cell of the Socialist Republic and became a member of the local peasant association-syndicate.
In 1902, to avoid calling for military service, Benito went to Switzerland. There, he was interrupted on random unprofessional work in Geneva, Lausanne and other cantons, and everywhere tried to participate in local socialist meetings. In Lausanne, visiting the economic lectures V. Pareto, met Pareto himself, as well as with his elite theory.
There, Mussolini met V. I. Lenin and Ukrainian Marxist-Emigrant A. Balabanova, which turned his attention to the works of Marx, Nietzsche, elite theorists. And although Mussolini during this period firmly entered the circle of Marxists, already then in his statements, the influence of the ideas of Pareto, Nietzsche, Lebo, Southells was constantly discovered.
In 1903, Mussolini, at the request of Italy, was deported to their homeland at 1904, but in 1904 he was amnestied in honor of the birthday of Prince Umberto, and in 1905 he went to the army volunteer. Having served two years, he returned to his native places. In 1908 he became a professor of French college in the village of Oneglia, where Italian was taught, geography and history. Here Mussolini began to edit the local socialist weekly, and its main themes were criticized government and the Vatican.
This criticism was quite in the spirit of "revolutionary syndicalism" on the sore. Until the end of the same 1908, Mussolini organized a strike of agricultural workers, and also visited arrest twice - for the threats to the head of the agricultural syndicate and for carrying out unauthorized rally.
In February 1909, Mussolini moved to Trento's Austrian city in South Tyrol, inhabited mainly Italians. Here he became secretary of the local labor center, and then editor of the "People" newspaper (IL Popolo), created by the socialist politician Cesare Battishi. Here Mussolini in collaboration with Santi Cavaia wrote an actikletrikal novel "Claudia Partichell, Malder Cardinal", which was printed in Il Popolo all 1910, and who would have rushed him with the Vatican for a long time.
The journalistic and writer's activity of the young and bright socialist ensured him a rapidly growing popularity in Socialist Parties. In 1910, Mussolini returned to Forli Edit Weekly "Class Fighting". In 1911, he led a wide public protest against the colonial war in Libya and organized several strikes and manifestations against sending troops to the front, for which he received almost half a year in prison. And at the same time, the party nickname "DUCH" (leader) is stronger.
In April 1912, Mussolini became the editor of the official body of the social part, the newspaper "Forward!" (Avanti!). Mussolini rapidly increased its sharp and bright articles of Mussolini and made it one of the most popular in the country. At the end of 1912, he was appointed chief editor Avanti! And moved to Milan.
In 1913, when laws on universal electoral law were adopted in Italy, a social capital (largely due to Mussolini) received high results in elections and strong positions in parliament. Her "left" faction led by Mussolini refused to proclaim the policy of social reformism proclaimed by the government, and from 1914 he headed mass strikes of industrial and agricultural workers - quite in the spirit of syndicalistic recommendations of J. Sobel.
At the same time, not only among the nationalists and the Catholic (Polatari) masses, but also among the socialists began the rise of nationalist sentiment.
Before World War I, Italy formally entered the three-way pact with Germany and Austria-Hungary. However, in the masses, hatred of these allies was quite common, and especially the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which had already held the "original" Italian lands for an Austro-Hungarian empire. Socialists and in this respect were opposition, and Mussolini in Avanti insistently wrote about the need for neutrality: "We want to remain faithful to our socialist and international ideas to the very basics."
And here we are approaching the time when the biographical method exhausts its capabilities and it is necessary to use another political method.
If Mussolini then walked ordinary for Italian socialists through, he would certainly become one of the bright figures of Italian social parties - and no more. But Mussolini, in contrast to these worthy (and in some sense of ordinary) people, was a) an unprecedented bastard and b) an outstanding politician capturing the historical content of the era. And capable of risking, stealing, cool turning according to the time of time.
Because Mussolini after the start of the First World War suddenly - quite in the spirit of Machiavelli - changed his political positionWhat is called, exactly the opposite. And published in the same "Avanti" article with a call to Italy to enter the war on the side of France and England, that is, the entunts. It was an incredibly risky step, conjugate with huge costs. However, the political Nuh Mussolini suggested him that the risk and costs are justified.
Mussolini was, of course, is excluded from Avanti, and from Sociality. But almost immediately founded his own newspaper "People of Italy", the proclaimed course in support of the war (such a course is called "interventional"). That is, the revengery of the elite is fully supported - from the industrialists and latifundists to the Vatican (which is not left unnoticed by these elite circles) - and widely low masses. It is noteworthy that new Newspaper Mussolini was with a subtitle "Socialist newspaper" and the motto of Augustea forms "Revolution - an idea who acquired bayonets."
At the same time, Mussolini proceeds to party-organizational work. He creates (his opponents argue that for money from the largest industrialists of the Confined Studies) political league of interventions called "Fasci Di Azione Revoluzionaria" - "Faxes (Union) of Revolutionary Action" - a model of the future fascist party.
It should be noted that this political project of Mussolini states under the slogan "Today the war is a revolution tomorrow," but his name for Italian hearing simultaneously addresses to ancient Rome and to violence. "Faxes" means not only the union, but also "fascia" - a bunch of twigs, a symbol of punishing authority of "magistrates" - the highest officials of the ancient Rome. This bunch of rods (usually - together with a top-pilot sticking into it) wore their retinues, "liktors" behind their magistrates. That is, the name of the league created by Mussolini is itself - in the part of the ancient Roman myth, and in part of violence - the revolutionary-syndicalistic idea of \u200b\u200bJ. Southell was built.
Mussolini continuously rides the country, organizing public mass performances, collecting supporters and campaigning for war. And he does it in socialist vocabulary and terminology (which, of course, it was terrible annoyed by the management of the Socialist Republic): "The German proletariat, following the kaiser, destroyed the international and thus released Italian workers from the obligation not to enter into war."
And he continuously writes on this topic of the article in his rapidly gaining popularity of the newspaper: "Our intervention has a double meaning: national and international. It is aimed at decaying the Austro-Hungarian monarchy; It is possible that the revolution in Germany will be followed and, as an inevitable opposition, the Russian revolution. In short, it is a step forward on the path of freedom and revolution ... War is a crucible that pays new revolutionary aristocracy. Our task is a non-verification, revolutionary, anti-constitutional intervention, and not at all the intervention of moderate, nationalists, imperialists.
On May 20, 1915, Italy enters war. In August, Mussolini is called up in the army, and in the regiment of Bersaliers - a kind of "special forces" of that time. Where he quickly acquires the authority from comrades and command not only with his campaign, but also personal courage: during the attacks, he more than once came out of the trench with a loud call "Long live the great Italy!". In February 1916, Mussolini "For an exemplary service, a high moral spirit and the bravery of the True Bersallera" receives Chin Capral, and fights another year - until the smoke is wounded in the explosion of mines.
Demobilizing, Mussolini quickly renews its campaign activities, including among socialists. One of the reasons for its propaganda success in the "right" wing of the Socialists was that almost all the years of the Socialist Republic of War was in a tight anti-war opposition not only to power, but also to the nationalistic moods to the nationalist sentiment, and was constantly accused of antipatriotism.
In this regard, we will give the floor to Nicholas Ustortylov - one of the deepest researchers of the Italian and German fascism, the cadet, then a supporter of the Kolchak's dictatorship, which has emigrated to Chinese Harbin, and later the Bolshevism has become an influential "political fellow traveler".
Of course, reading Ustrylova, it should be borne in mind that he wrote a book about the Italian fascism in 1928, to a wide promulgation of the facts of monstrous fascist crimes, and in addition he himself was an ideologist of the specific "National Bolshevism". Nevertheless, with its assessment, generally agreed on the Comintern figures. And they have written this: "There was something impotent and half of the neutralism of the Italian socialists. Neither the frank patriotism of their European colleagues nor the actual revolutionary daring the Russian style ... Surface pacifism, imbued with fear ... not a fanatic rate for a revolution and civil war, and washing hands, appeal to a narrow calculation ... ".
But the people's majority, unlike the socialists, sincerely considered it a chance for the return of territories previously taken from Italy from Italy with mainly Italian population. In the first months of the war, more than 200 thousand volunteers took it.
In addition, the military orders of industry based on foreign (mainly English) and internal loans, during the period of the war, significantly revived Italian economy and reduced the level of social protest.
However, the end of the war very quickly dispelled mass optimistic expectations.
When Italy in April 1915 signed a secret agreement in London with England, Russia and France, to her for joining war against Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey was promised to return the land of "Non-Exchangeable Italy" (Italia Irredenta) - South Tyrol, part of the northern Adriatic, as well as to give part of the territories of the Ottoman Empire.
In the Saint-Germene Peace Treaty of 1919, Italy received many of the promised, but not all. She did not achieve their goals in Dalmatia and Albania, and did not receive the city of Fiume on the Adriatic, which has long been populated mainly by the Italians (Rappalskaya Treaty of 1920 declared the Fiume with an independent city republic).
Almost all Italy spoke about the "stolen victory" and about the "betrayal of the Allies." Moreover, the most sharp and loud voices sounded from Mussolini and his supporters by the fascist league. So, one of the first fascist associates of Mussolini, Dino Grandi, said: "The victorious tyranny of the Anglo-French plutocracy, which, imposing a monstrous one in their historical injustice and the Versailles' contract, has made every effort to deprive us of the elementary and sacred fruits of our Victory. And she managed it! Our victory in fact was only the turnover of literary speech, and our country found himself in the discharge of defeated and suffocked countries. "
That is, the interventionist "soil" for fascism in the country after the end of the war was quite prepared. But the war prepared in Italy for fascism and another, even more serious soil.
About this - in the next article.
Dear citizen! [In the manuscript after the appeal, the text is followed by the publishing: "Your letter dated August 30 caught me in London and it was amended me here - this explains the delay in response, what I am deeply sorry. I thank you personally and the Italian socialists, which you imagine, for the kindly sent invitation to me. Unfortunately, I can't use it. " Ed.]
... But if I have no opportunity to personally attend your congress, I send you, at the same time, the best wishes of success in your activities in the interests of international socialism.
Italian socialists are subjected to the action of a unheard of an exceptional law, which will undoubtedly cost them several years of cruel suffering. Well! And others had to pass through such tests.
After the fall of the Paris commune, the bourgeois reaction in France was inxicated by the blood of proletarians, and here is the result: 50 deputies of socialist in the French Chamber.
In Germany, Bismarck held socialists outside the law for whole twelve years, but the socialists overturned the exceptional law, they removed the Bismarck from power and are now the strongest party in the empire.
What made French and German workers will also make Italian workers. What the Tieger failed to achieve, Mac-Magon, Bismarck, will not achieve some kind of crisp. Victory for you! [In the manuscript instead of the words "yours!" written; "behind us!" Ed.]
Long live international revolutionary socialism!
Fraternal hello
Friedrich Engels.
Printed translated into Italian in the newspaper "Lotta Di Classe" No. 38, September 22-23, 1894
Printed on the text of the newspaper, drilled with a draft manuscript in French
Translation from Italian
Notes:
National Liberals- Party of German, primarily Prussian bourgeoisie formed in the fall of 1866 as a result of the split of the bourgeois batch of progressors. National Liberals abandoned the claims of the bourgeoisie to the political domination to satisfy the economic interests of this class and set their main goal to the unification of German states under the primacy of Prussia; Their policy reflected the capitulation of the German liberal bourgeoisie before Bismarck. After the combination of Germany, the National Liberal Party was finally developed as a part of a large bourgeoisie, primarily industrial magnates. The internal policy of National Liberalov acquired an increasingly loyal character, and at the same time National Liberals actually abandoned the previously nominated liberal requirements.
Centre- Political party of German Catholics formed in 1870-1871. As a result of the combination of the Catholic fractions of the Prussian Landtag and the German Reichstag (the place of deputies of these factions was located in the center of the meeting rooms). The Party of the Center occupied, as a rule, an intermediate position, having labored between the parties that support the government, and the left opposition fractions of the Reichstag. It united under the banner of Catholicism various on the social situation of the Catholic clergy, landowners, bourgeoisie, part of the peasantry of the peasantry of mostly small and medium-sized states of Western and South-West Germany, supported their separatist and antiprussian trends. The center was in opposition to the Government of Bismarck, at the same time voted for its events against the worker and socialist movement. Detailed feature The Engels Center gave "the role of violence in history" (see this publication, vol. 21, p. 478-479), and also in the article "What's next?" (See this Tom, p. 8-9).
Conservatives- Party of Prussian Junkers, the military, the tops of the bureaucracy and the Lutheran clergy. It was origin from the extreme right monarchist fraction in the Prussian National Assembly of 1848. The policy of conservatives aimed at preserving the remnants of feudalism and the reactionary political system in the country was imbued with the spirit of militant chauvinism and militarism. After the creation of the North-German Union and in the first years after the formation of the German Empire, they constituted the opposition to the Government of Bismarck on the right, fearing that his policy would lead to the "dissolution" of Prussia in Germany. However, since 1866, the so-called party of "free conservatives" (or "Imperial Party") was separated from this party (or "Imperial Party"), which expressed the interests of major agrarians and parts of industrial magnates and which became unconditional support for Bismarck.
Moltke. "DER RUSSISCH-TURKISCHE FELDZUG IN DER EUROPAISCHEN TURKEI 1828 UND 1829". Berlin, 1845, S. 390 (Moltke. "Russian-Turkish campaign in European Turkey in 1828 and 1829." Berlin, 1845, p. 390).
This greeting was written by Engels in response to the invitation to take part in the third congress of the Socialist Party of Italian Workers, directed by Engels, one of the leaders of Carlo Dell, Avalle in a letter dated August 30, 1894. The Third Congress, appointed on September 7-9, 1894 in Imvel, did not take place, as it was banned by the police.
Engels greeting, as well as greetings, obtained in the address from other figures of the socialist movement (P. Lafarga, P. Iglesias, etc.), was read at a meeting of the Central Committee of the Party on September 10, 1894, and then printed in the newspaper "Lotta di CLASSE »№ 38, September 22-23, 1894.
Socialist Party of Italian Workerswas founded in 1892 at the congress in Genoa (this name accepted in 1893 g., S.1895 was called the "Italian Socialist Party"). The Socialist Party of Italian Workers was strongly located with anarchists and in the 90s, despite some reformist errors, actively led by the mass movement of the Italian working class.
"Lotta Di Classe"("Class struggle") - weekly Italian newspaper, central body of the socialist party of Italian workers; I went out in Milan from 1892 to 1898.
Engels means a law on exceptional public security measures adopted by the Italian Parliament on July 14, 1894. This law, published as a measure aimed allegedly against anarchists, was used by the reactionary Government of Crispi to fight against the labor movement and the growing influence of socialists. Based on this law, the Socialist Party of Italian Workers was prohibited, workers 'organizations were closed, workers' newspapers and magazines were prohibited; Mass character accepted arrests, searches, lawsuits. However, despite the cruel repressions, the Italian socialists did not stop their struggle and in January 1895 secretly held a third congress of the Socialist Party of Italian Workers in Parma.
Benito Amilkare Andrea Mussolini (July 29, 1883 - April 28, 1945) - Italian politician, writer, leader of the fascist party (NFP), dictator, leader ("DUCH"), headed by Italy (as the Prime Minister) from 1922 to 1943. Marshal Empire (March 30, 1938). After 1936, his official title was "His Excellency Benito Mussolini, the head of government, fascism, and the founder of the empire." Mussolini remained in power until 1943, after which he was shifted and arrested, but dismissed by the German special forces and then he headed the Italian Social Republic to the north of Italy. Mussolini was one of the founders of Italian fascism, which included elements of corporateism, expansionism and anti-communism in combination with censorship and state propaganda. Among the achievements of the internal policy of the Mussolini government in the period 1924-1939 were: the successful implementation of the public works program, such as the draining of Pontic marsh, improving the employment opportunities, as well as the modernization of the public transport system. Mussolini also solved the Roman issue by concluding Lateran agreements between the Kingdom of Italy and the Papal Throne. He is also attributed to ensure economic success in the colonies of Italy. Expansionist foreign policy, originally crowned by the conquest of Abyssinia and Albania, forced him to the Union with Germany and participating in World War II as part of the Axis countries, which was the cause of his death.
Benito Mussolini, the son of Alessandro Mussolini and Malton's roses, was born in the Berano di Costa at 2 o'clock 45 minutes in the afternoon on Sunday July 29, 1883, 14 months after the death of Garibaldi and 4 months after the death of Karl Marx. At various stages of his life, Mussolini admired by these two people, although he would certainly reject him with horror, which he later became. The Costa-Di-Costa - a small village in the mountains over the village of Doviya in the arrival of Predappio, next door to Forlie , in the Romagna region, not far from the Adriatic coast of Italy. This is the land of violence and revolutions, and violence of older revolutions, since it originated in many centuries before Italy became a single nation.
Alessandro Mussolini
Father Benito Mussolini, Alessandro, the son of the peasant poor man, was born in Monttemaor, in the Roman, in 1854, six years before the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, when Romagna was part of the Papal Region, in which all the highest government officials were priests. Only 26% of the population skillfully read and write. Dad even banned the construction of railways due to fear that they will bring revolutionary doctrines to remote villages. Young Alessandro became a blacksmith. Without finding work in my Mathematradzhore, he moved to Dawn and opened his blacksmith there. He became a zealous socialist and at eighteen years he joined the local branch of the Bakuninsky Section of International. When the residents of Dovii led the Konya to the forge, Alessandro at work inspired socialist ideas. Do not even consonted with him, customers considered it a glorious guy and good-naturedly listened to socialist propaganda.
Alessandro fell in love with Malton Rose, born in Forli, also in the Roman, in 1858.
Rosa Malton
She worked in Predappio teacher at school. It was a kind, intelligent, "conscious" woman, who considered the upbringing of local children in his duty. Like most residents of Romagna, she was a zealous Catholic. Alessandro Mussolini belonged to those few who were configured to sharply anti-cyatolic: he was a militant atheist. However, the love that broke out between the conservative Catholic and the Socialist-atheist was violent and uncontrollable. Alessandro and Rosa were so in love that they could reconcile their religious differences. The father of the rose was at first was distressed by the choice of her daughter, he did not want to give it to the superior revolutionary, but Rosa insisted, and he surrendered. Alessandro to please Rose, agreed to be marred in the church. The wedding took place in Predippio on January 25, 1882.
Benito Mussolini Benito Place
Their first child, boy, born on July 29, 1883. Alessandro came out again with his atheistic principles and allowed the Son to paint, but insisted on behalf of Benito Amilkare Andrea, in honor of the three heroes of revolutionaries. Benito Juarez, President of Mexico, headed the liberally configured forces in civil War Against the Catholic-Conservatives and inspired Mexicans to fight the French army sent by Napoleon III to land on the imperial throne of the Mexico of the Austrian Erzgertzoga Maximilian. After breaking the French, Juarez took Maximilian captured, he was tried and shot. Royal houses of Europe and all conservatives were horrified, and revolutionaries triumphant, especially Italian, since Maximilian was the brother of Emperor Austro-Hungary Franz Joseph, who until recently cooked the Italian population of Lombardy and Venice and continued to coal the Italians of Trieste and Trentino.
Amilkar Cypriani fought side by side with Garibaldi during his attempt to release Rome in 1862, who ended with defeat under aspromonte. Then in 1871 he went to Paris to beat the commune. He survived the massacre of the Communards, who was committed to General Gastron de Galife after the fall of the commune, but was one of those prisoner rebels who were sent to a new Caledonia (island in the Pacific Ocean). There he made all the nine-year-old conclusion and was released by amnesty in 1880. Cypriyani returned to Italy and joined the internationalists, who worshiped him as a hero and martyr of the struggle for the idea.
Kitchen House Benito Mussolini in Pradappio (in Emilia-Romagna), where he was born on July 29, 1883.
Andrea Costa was another famous Italian revolutionary. In 1874, he became the leader of internationalists and the chief organizer of the Bologna uprising. He was well known in the romague, he often visited these parts with his mistress, a blond Jew from Russia, Anna Rosinstein, known as Anna Kuleshova. Like the Costa, it was a decisive socialist. When she was tried in Florence in November 1879 as an internationalist and terrorist, she defended so brilliantly, which was justified by jury.
All children of Mussolini brought up together in the father's house in Berano di Costa. It was an uncomplicated structure of four rooms, whose meager setting was several wooden tables and chairs, as well as simple iron beds discharged by Alessandro in his blacksmith. The walls were decorated with two paintings: Madonna Pompayskaya, which Rose especially read, and the portrait of Garibaldi, the beloved hero of Alessandro.
When he was 9 years old, he was sent to Faencu to the boarding school. As in many other educational centers, giving secondary education, teachers there were monks of the Salesian Order. The discipline was strict, and the life of the boys is harsh. They got up at 5 am in summer or in 6 - in winter. During meals, it was forbidden to talk. Father arranged him to another school, Collegio Jiosis Car Ducci in Forlimmopoli, where they were taught and managed not priests, but teachers. In her, Benito stayed seven years, before he was 18. He studied brilliantly, especially differing success in history, geography and Italian literature. However, the troubles and there was enough. On January 14, 1898 (he was then 14 years old), a classmate sitting next to him put Klyaksu on the page of the notebook, where Mussolini wrote a solution to a mathematical problem. When Benito pulled out the penny knife and began to scrape the stain, this boy knocked him on his head. In response, Mussolini was overwhelmed by a penny knife to his buttock. In the last two school years, he began to show interest in sex. Mussolini looked at her pretty girls on the street and often visited the brothels of the forlim hollow.
After graduating from the school, Mussolini began to look for work. He was adopted by the teacher elementary school In the small town of Guvaletei in Emilia, not far from Parma, almost in hundreds of Miles from Predappio. The work was badly paid, but gave a certain position in society and the right to be called "Professor Mussolini". In Balkotieri, he became friends with the Socialist teacher Nicola Bombachchi, intellectual. He had a strange appearance and a big bush beard. There, in Balkotieri, Mussolini had a love relationship with some Julia F., the wife of a soldier who served at that time military service. They committed long walks on the banks of the river by. Roman them, full, according to Mussolini, "Brutal Passion and Jealousy", ended with the return of her husband from the army.
Mussolini in 1900 at the age of 17 years.
Mussolini briefly delayed in Balkotieri. He decided to go to Switzerland. He wanted to travel, as well as to meet with foreign socialists and anarchists. In Switzerland since the times of Bakunin, many anarchist circles and groups flourished among the Kantona Jurassic watchmakers. Socialists were settled there from France, Italy and especially from Russia, who were not relevant to the police of their own countries and turned the Switzerland in the refuge of revolutionary emigrants. Mussolini, among other things, wanted to avoid calling to the Italian army, knowing the agenda to achieve 20 years. On July 9, 1902, he sat down in a night train, walking from Chiasso to Iverdon on the Nebent Lake. He had a little money with him, but there are no more means of existence. He was going to live in Switzerland for random earnings and on the auxiliary of friends who intended to start there.
Mussolini in Switzerland. 1904.
All this time, Mussolini wrote articles in socialist newspapers: in the Lausanne "L" Avenir del Laveorator "and others published by Italian emigrants in Switzerland, as well as in the Milan" L "Avant-garde Socialist" and "Ilproletari", the body of the Italian socialists in New York . At the same time, he composed several poems, which were also published in these newspapers, including sonnet about the French revolutionary Rabeph, guillotined during the thermalist reaction and worshiped as the first socialist revolutionary.
However, in the summer of 1903, he is VLIP in more serious trouble with the police. Bern Carpenters began a strike that caused great damage to building contractors. Mussolini spoke on Maevka and called for a universal strike in support of carpenters. The authorities did not take immediate measures, but in the Swiss police of the "Socialist-Revolutionary Benito Mussolini" took note. On June 18, he was arrested, interrogated and placed on 12 days in Bern prison, where he was charged for an order for expulsion from the canton. He was transmitted to the Italian border in Kiasso, but he immediately sat down to Lugano, from where he proceeded to Lausanne, where the Berkin Order on the expulsion was invalid.
Benito Mussolini, June 19, 1903, after his arrest of the Swiss police due to the absence of identity documents
In April 1904, Mussolini was condemned by the Military Tribunal in Forli for evading military service. However, several months later, the Italian government gave amnesty to deserters. At this time, Mussolini pondered the intention to visit New York, but he wanted to see her father and mother who dreamed of his return to Italy. He also understood that if he would not respond to the amnesty and would not go to the army, he would have to be an exile to the end of his life. In November 1904, he left Switzerland. At home, he immediately appeared on a draft point in Forli and in January 1905 was sent to the 10th regiment of Bersaliers, quartered in Verona.
Mussolini served in the army of 21 months, completely giving himself to military classes, so he wrote only one political article during this time. In subsequent years, he said that he had enjoyed his stay in the army and also realized that a person before commanding should learn to obey. Indeed, in almost two years a naughty schoolboy, a vagabond revolutionary and a journalist Mussolini changed the obedient and skillful soldiers.
When he was demobilized in September 1906, he received the position of school teacher in Tolmezzo, near Venice. There he started a novel with the owner's wife at home, where he filmed an apartment. In the autobiography of 1911, he describes it as a thirty-year-old woman, preserved beauty and charm, despite the stormy past. The husband learned about their relationship, but he was limited to beating Mussolini.
During his stay in Trento, Mussolini fell in love with the married woman Fernandu Oska Facinelli, who worked at the trade union headquarters. She gave him a son who died, having lived a few months. Fernanda also died soon from tuberculosis. Mussolini supported contact with her mother and, becoming a dictator, helped the old woman with money. Another His mistress in Trento was Ida Irena Dalzer, the daughter of the host hotel in Sardinia. Attractive, brisk, enterprising, but hysterical. She was the onset of Mussolini, she was 26 years old.
Forl's socialists decided to publish their local newspaper and appointed Mussolini by its editor. He gave the newspaper the name "L Lotta di class" ("Class struggle"). In the first issue of January 9, 1910, he condemned parliamentarism and called on "to the struggle of a class against class, the struggle, which is crowned with the universal revolution." Throughout 1910, he expressed extreme socialist views in a newspaper, especially attacking the militarism and nationalism of Republicans such as Mazzini. "Republicans want a national association," he wrote on July 2, "we want international." The proletariat should no longer shed its precious blood in the Boyne on the needs of the Moloch of Patriotism. The national flag for us is just a rag that you have to throw in the manure. "
Mussolini, editor of the Socialist newspaper. Italy. 1910.
In Forlie Mussolini wanted to live like a husband with his wife with Gwidi's Rachel, which by this time was seventeen years old. She waited for him and was very disappointed that he never wrote to her from Trento. He only made an assignment for her at the end of each postcard sent to his father. However, she believed that this was happening because he was very busy with journalism and politics. No one informed her about Fernanda Oska Facinelli, nor about the idea Irene Dalzer.
Rachel
Mother Rachel did not really want her daughter to marry Benito, believing that being a wife of an active revolutionary-socialist - it means to obrace himself a hard life. Alessandro Mussolini was agreed with her, because he had vinyl his own revolutionary activity with a rose. But Benito and Rachel firmly decided to be together. According to Rachel, Benito eventually convinced Alessandro and her mother to agree to their union, appearing in their house with a revolver in his hand and threatening to kill her, and then herself if they continue to oppose. Even if the story was Rasheli Raspen - and not all written in her memoirs exactly, - Mussolini was unlikely to seriously accomplish his threat. Rather, he played the drama in which Rashel willingly took part.
Parents, in the end, ceased to object, and on January 17, 1910, Benito and Rachel began a joint life. There was no civil, nor religious ceremony, as it would go wrong with the principles of Mussolini. Rachel happily agreed to live with him without legitimate design, because he completely agreed with his political and religious views. It was probably pregnant, since their first child was born after seven and a half months, at three o'clock in the night of September 1910. It was a tiny girl. Her name was called Edda.
Mussolini with Rachel and daughter Edda
January 27, ten days after Benito began to live with Racheleo, his father seriously fell ill. He was urgently taken to the hospital, however, even though he was discharged on February 9, the shadow of the former Alessandro returned home. He lived another 9 months, and then came recurrence. Benito sent the telegrams. We brother Arnaldo and her sister Edigin, released in 1907 married Francesco Mancini, calling them to the bed of the Father. They managed to come. Alessandro Mussolini died at 4 am on November 17, 1910 at the age of 56.
In August, he spoke at a conference of socialist youth in the chaser with a call to violate military discipline, this first step towards the destruction of the army, because the army and bureaucracy are two supports of the bourgeois state.
On November 5, he announced that his newspaper would persistently and violently continue the antimylitarian and antipatarian propaganda. He proclaimed antipatriotism, since he blamed the patriotic policy that it weakens the class struggle. Understanding that such propaganda is extremely dangerous and can lead to the newspaper to judge the Military Tribunal, he was ready to suffer for the sake of idea. "We will not protect our country, because we have no country to protect." On August 5, 1911, he wrote in La Lotta di class ":" If the Motherland, this false fiction, which has tested his age, will call for new sacrifices of blood and money, the proletariat, following the instructions of the socialists, should answer this by a universal strike. The war between nations will go to war between classes. " October 14, 1911, when he had breakfast in the Cafe "Garibaldi" in Forli, the police arrested him. Nenny and Lolly were arrested by two hours earlier. November 18, they appeared before the court. Mussolini was accused of incitement to the people to violence, which sounded in his speech 24. September. After the speech of a lawyer, when he was asked if he wanted to add something to what was said, Mussolini exclaimed: "If you consider me innocent, I will be satisfied, but if you declare me guilty, I will be flattened." The court recognized him and his colleagues guilty. On November 23, Nenny was sentenced to one year and fifteen days in prison, as well as a fine of five hundred lire. Mussolini - to one year in prison, and Lolly - to six months in prison and a fine in three hundred lire. Like many other political prisoners, during their stay in prison he wrote. At the age of 28, he wrote an autobiography entitled: "My life has been from July 29, 1883 to November 23, 1911." She was written at the insistence of his supporters-socialists.
On June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Serbian nationalists, Franz Ferdinand, Heir to the Austrian throne, was killed in Sarajevo Serbian Nationalists. Editorial comment Mussolini, published the next day in Avanti!, Was more restrained than the delight on the murder of Stolypin in 1911. He called the death of the Arch holder and his wife, a "tragic event," but nevertheless rejoiced the strike of the Habsburg monarchy, which, not content with the oppression of Hungarians and Croats, aims to expand his territories and join Serbia. The Austrian government really intended to use the murder in Sarajevo as an excuse for capturing Serbia.
As the crisis developed, Mussolini continued its anti-war propaganda. In the article on July 26, he wrote in Avanti! ":" Only one cry will hear out of the mouth of the Italian proletariat. On the squares and streets of Italy will sound: "Down with the War!" It is time to Italian proletariat confirm your old slogan: "There is a single person, nor a single coin!", Whatever it cost. "
Executive Committee of the Second International
The executive committee of the Second International hastily gathered on July 29 in Brussels. The Italian Socialist Party was represented by Angelica Balabanova. It was time for all socialist parties to implement a policy that was stated in 1907 in Stuttgart Yves in 1912 in Basel, that is, to call for a universal strike in the warring countries in order to stop the war. Everyone was waiting for this appeal of the Socialist Party of Austria, since, no doubt, the Austria began war. But the Austrian delegates said to their colleagues in Brussels, which is not going to do anything like this. Workers Citades of Socialism - Red Vienna - demanded a messenger of Serbs who killed their erzgertzog. They shouted "death to all Serbs!" And actively supported the war. The leader of the Austrian Socialists Viktor Adler stressed that it is better to make mistake together with its working class than to be right against him.
Then the French and Belgian Socialists also decided to support their governments.
Throughout August, Mussolini continued to hold the party line in the Avanti newspaper! ", But was deeply shocked by the inability of other parties of the Second International to stop the war, especially the failure of the German and Austrian parties, who failed to condemn the aggressive policy of Emperors of Germany and Austria. He spoke to his friend: "The second international died." Lenin noticed the same in the same reason, but Lenin made out of this conclusion: it is necessary to create a new one - the third - international. The withdrawal of Mussolini was the opposite. In 1932, he told Emily Ludwig that it was the betrayal of the German Social Democrats of the business of internationalism in 1914, he led him to the rejection of international socialism, and then to the creation of a fascist party.
It was the last speech of Mussolini in defense of socialist internationalism. October 18 in Avanti! " An article appears under the heading "from the absolute neutrality to the neutrality of active and effective." He wrote that the neutrality absolute means the support of the Triple Union of the monarchies of Italy, Austria and Germany. Socialists are not always preached neutrality and object to war. When they do socialist revolutionThey will have to lead a revolutionary war with foreign powers that will not remain aside and will try to suppress this revolution. The Mussolini article alarmed the leaders of the Socialist Party. The next day, 14 members of the National Executive Committee of the Italian Socialist Party, including Ladzari, Seria, Panyatse, Angelica Balabanova and Mussolini, met in Bologna to discuss her. They covered the whole day, October 19, until late in the evening, and Ladzari, Serratia and Balabanov with great bitterness responded about the position of Mussolini.
Angelica Barabanova
When the next morning, the discussion resumed the discussion, Mussolini proposed a resolution: the party confirms its fundamental attitude to all wars, but believes that the line that Avanti's newspaper still held (Absolute neutrality), too dogmatic. In accordance with the changing international situation, the party must change it to the policies of flexible neutrality. For this resolution, only Mussolini voted. She was rejected by thirteen voices against one. Mussolini demanded that the National Executive Committee convene an extraordinary party congress to discuss the attitude of the party to war, but his requirement was rejected. Then he resigned from the post editor "Avanti!". On November 15, the first issue of his own newspaper was published, which he called "Il Popolo D" ITALY "(" Italian people "). With all his fervor and gloss, he began a campaign in support of Republicans, calling it to Italy to enter the war on the side of the Allies. Socialist leaders Camped him as a traitor.
The explanation of the changes that happened to Mussolini in October, undoubtedly lies in his character, which so clearly analyzed Angelica Balabanova. No matter how advantages he possessed, despite all the courage, which was in a collision with police clubs, and then in the trenches under the enemy's fire, the courage to swim against the current, he did not have to go against public opinion. Friends in the Socialist Party, which he admired more than others, the most decisive and violent, stood at war. And he felt that soon they would win the support of most people. He wanted to be with them, wanted to be popular in the masses, tear the crowd applause. He wanted his whole life on the side of the winners, although he was cruel in 1940.
On November 24, at the meeting of the Milan branch of the Italian Socialist Party in the Milan "Theater Del Popolo" Mussolini under the cries and the hook of the hall defended his point of view on the entry into the war and argued his actions. After the fierce debate, it was excluded from the party.
As soon as Mussolini began in "Il Popolo D" ITALY "campaign for Italian intervention (intervention) in the war, his opponents began to ask questions from where he took the money for the publication of the newspaper. November 18, three days after the first issue, in the Zurich newspaper "Noye Zurichor Taytung" ("New Zurich City Gazeta") was published a statement by the German news agency that Il Popolo d ITALY company finances the French government.
Two days later, Mussolini denied this accusation, just as Lenin denied in 1917, he received money from the German government. In fact, the French and Belgian government financed Mussolini in 1914 for the same reason as Germanic financed Lenin in 1917, because they thought it was in their interests. And Mussolini and Lenin gladly took this money and were not going to become Agents of France and Germany, but did it in order to continue the policy that was considered correct.
Philip Corridoni with Mussolini during a demonstration of 1915 in Milan
The Milan "Faxes of the Diance" in the evening of April 11 staged a large demonstration at the Cathedral Square of Milan. Their call for "Milan Procetarians" was published on the eve, on April 10, in Ile Pololó D "ITALY" under the title "Fascists of Italy, take the area of \u200b\u200bany Price! " They denied that the revolutionary fascists ignite the war and are nationalists, and they stated that only the monarchy, the Vatican, Bourgeoisie and Germanophile-Socialists, bribed the Golden Bulbov, are supported by the neutrality. "Proletaria, go out to the streets and squares with us and shout:" The one-selling mercantile policy of the Italian bourgeoisie! " Require war against empires who are responsible for the fire in Europe. Long live war for the liberation of peoples! "
Benito Mussolini in 1915 in Rome was arrested for agitation
Mussolini repeated this call in the morning Sunday release "Il Popolo D" ITALY "and reminded readers their words written on October 18, 1914, when he spoke about the need to" kill the letter "for the sake of preserving the spirit of the Italian Socialist Party." Today we say: you need to kill Party to save socialism. "Mussolini on this day, April 11, went to Rome to participate in demonstrations in support of interventionism. Just when he began to act, the police appeared. He was hit by a baton and arrested, but after a few hours they were released. 23 May 1915 The Italian government gave an order of universal mobilization and the next day announced the war of Austria. At the appropriate time, the announcement of the war of Germany, Turkey and Bulgaria was followed. May 23 Mussolini wrote to Il Popolo D ITALY: "Starting from today there is only Italians ... All Italians are combined into a steel block ... General Cainan snatched his sword out of herbal and go to Vienna. Long live Italy!"
Benito Mussolini in the form of a Bersalhersky Regiment during the First World War
I didn't have to wait for Mussolini for a long time: he was ordered to appear in the barracks on August 31, 1915 in Milan, which he did, leaving the newspaper "Il Popolo D" ITALY "on assistants. It was sent to the 11th regiment of Bersaliers, sent to Bershia. On September 17, he was at the front under Udine. The captain of his battalion, the reader "Il Popolo D" ITALY, "offered to appoint it to the editor of the regimental newspaper, located in Udine, but Mussolini wished to fight the Austrians at the front.
He was assigned to Chin Capral, and he began to fulfill the usual duties of the military personnel of the average army. The colleagues loved him. In 1945, one person in Milan told the English historian, Christophore Hibbert, which was a corporal in the same battalion as Mussolini, and although he was Basta and Trepach, but "the guy was nice."
Assistrators of the future dictator on the Bersalhersky regiment drink together with Benito on the front. 1917
During the last weeks of the onset of Mussolini, I received a letter from Ida Dalzer, in which she reported that on November 11 in Milan, she gave him his son to him and called him Benito Albino. Shortly after that, Mussolini fell ill patient and on November 24 was sent to a military hospital in Kividal. During his stay there, the hospital was visited by the king. So he met Mussolini for the first time. When Mussolini has become better, he was crossed for final recovery in Trefilio under Milan, and then gave a monthly vacation. After the sixth battle, Izonzo Mussolini was produced in "Capochalmagor" - Chin, corresponding to about English younger sergeant. Because of this, sometimes confusion arises as to which the highest Chin earned Mussolini by the end of the First World War (Capral or Sergeant).
Mussolini in the 14th Bersalhersk Regiment. 1915.
In mid-October 1915, Caunnel began the offensive again. The third and fourth battle on the Inezo River continued with breaks on a day or two for seven weeks. However, Austrians, though they did not have a numerical advantage, managed to strengthen their positions, and the Italians could not achieve their goals. Their attacks were discontinued on December 5th. Losses on this front, as in the West and Russian fronts, were very large, much more than in previous wars. So, in 1859, the whole of Europe was shocked by the number of killed in the battle in Solferino, where the total losses of the French, Italians and Austrians amounted to about 40,000. In battles, from October to December 1915, the Italians lost 113,000 people, Austrians - 90,000.
Benito Mussolini during the war. 1916.
October 23 in the battles of the Inezo River was killed by Corridoni. The story of Marcereit Sarfatty about it was among the fascist legends. She described how one day the Socialist soldier, forcibly called up to the army, went to Mussolini and asked him: "Are you Mussolini?" When Mussolini confirmed that this is he, the Socialist soldier said: "I have a pleasant news for you. Corridoni killed, and filed him. " The soldier began to curse Corridoni, as one of those who dragged Italy in the war. Next, Sarfatti wrote that Mussolini jumped to his feet and sent a rifle on the "bastard". When, seeing this, a sergeant ran to him and asked: "What are you doing, Capral?" "Mussolini" dropped a rifle and sorely, feeling death in the heart, went away. " Like many sarfatti stories, this, apparently, does not correspond to reality. Although Mussolini did not want to disprove it when Margherita published it in 1925. However, it is difficult to reconcile it with the "military diary" of Mussolini, where he does not mention this case, but writes on November 1, 1915: "Lieutenant Colonel Cassol was passing to me in the sad news about the death of the corridoni." The next day, in the records of the diary of November 2, he adds: "Corridoni is killed on the battlefield. Honor him and glory! "
Capral Bersalhersky Regiment Benito Mussolini on the front. 1917.
On August 4, 1916, the army on the Isonsky Front, transmitted by Correne under the leadership of the King's cousin, Duke Aosta, moved to the next offensive and after the fierce fighting on August 9 gorges. All Italy celebrated the Great Victory. However, after the first success, the offensive was exhausted, although the fights on the Karso Plateau continued until mid-November. The losses were again very very necessary. For all the 1916 campaigns, the Italians lost killed and wounded 405,000 people and 60,000 were captured.
Mussolini at the front in 1917
In the winter of 1917, during the period of military clutch, the weather on Isonsky Front stood raw and cold. Mussolini and a few more soldiers of his division on February 22 conducted a gun test. About one hour later, several shots were made, and Mussolini warned Lieutenant who commanded the targeting that the tool was overheated. The lieutenant replied that only one shot and the gun should stand. However, when she stared, the gun was broken. Mussolini writes in his diary that two soldiers killed on the spot, and five was injured, although his biographers argue that there were more victims. They write that there were five people who were killed and many were injured. Mussolini was seriously injured by the shell fragments. The left thigh suffered the strongest: the bone was interrupted.
He suffered from unbearable pain, he was taken to the field dressing point, and from there on the armored person - in Ronchi, in the field hospital number 46, where he was made operation. His biographers argue that he refused anesthesia. He himself confirmed this in 1932 by Emily Ludwig. When Ludwig asked why he refused chloroform, Mussolini replied that he wanted to follow surgeons. However, it is more likely that he decided to demonstrate himself and surrounding his heroism. This story may well be true, although it is surprising that a military doctor did not order Croal Mussolini to take anesthesia without conversations.
Mussolini on crutches in a military hospital.1917
Two days later, he was able, although not himself, write a letter to Rachel, in which he announced his injury and prison to worry. However, learning about the injury, she immediately arrived in Ronchi, and she was allowed to visit him. According to a much later newspaper article, on March 7, the hospital visited the king. "How are you feeling?" - asked the king. "Not too good, Your Majesty," Mussolini answered.
If in this story there is some truth, then Mussolini did not mention it in his "military diary". Although, perhaps, this is not surprising in the light of his relationship to the monarchy and "Viktor Savoysky" in 1917.
He quickly recovered, but was still seriously ill, when on March 18, the hospital was covered by the fire of Austrian artillery. The Italians were convinced that the Austrians did it not by chance, and deliberately shot at the hospital, a brightly labeled red cross, thereby disrupting the laws of fair war.
Benito Mussolini in Pajamas, relies on crutches after graduating during its service by the corporal of the 14th Bersalhersk Regiment during the First World War. 1917.
The leadership of the hospital, fearing re-shelling, evacuated wounded to other hospitals. However, Mussolini was in too hard, and it could not be transported. In the "Military Diary" he wrote that he had one in the hospital in Ronchi together with two doctors, sisters and a capellan. Emil Ludwig, however, he said that besides him there were still two patients. It seems rather strange that if it was possible to deliver it to Ronchi on the armored vehicle immediately after injury, then why it was impossible to transport it 24 days later, when the condition became much better. Perhaps simply did not turn out to be suitable transport, and there is no reason to doubt the truthfulness of this last entry in the "Military Diary". On June 15, 1917, Mussolini demobilized from the army appeared to the editorial board "Il Popolo D" Italy "in Milan, relying on the crutches. Soon he parted with them and could work normally. Now he was a man who shed blood for his country, the hero of war, whom No one else could reproach in hypocritical evasion from military service. And he began civil life with the fact that he proclaimed a campaign in the press for the war to the victorious end, for further sacrifices, for the eradication of the defeat and pacifism.
History
Creating a party and its first dissolution
It was formed in the city of Genoa in 1892, was originally called the party of Italian workers.
The creation of the working party was born in Italy, since the working movement was gaining momentum. In 1882, the Italian Workers Party (partito operaio Italiano) was already formed in Milan, so that a certain alloy from various parties and movements was created in Genoa, close to whom Karl Marx ideology was created. At the origins of the party stood Lombards Filippo Turtura and Parmesan Guido Albertelli. It is noteworthy that the revolutionary Anna Kulischeva (Name Anna Rosinstein) took part in the action of the party.
In 1893, the official name of the Socialist Party of Italian workers was awarded at the Congress in Reggio-Emilia of the party. But already in 1894, the party was dissolved by Decree of Crispi.
Recreation of the party in late 1890s - early 1900s
Split
Radicals and Mussolini
In 1907, the party was left the most radically customized members who decide to look for their way, and in 1910, at the congress of the party in Milan, Benito Mussolini was present. In 1912, Mussolini received great support for his allegaters, and the party survived another split. With the beginning of World War II, the party advocated the neutrality of Italy, but then this position was transformed into "neither support, nor sabotage," and Mussolini was expelled from the party.
Communists
On January 21, 1921, at Congress in Livorno, part of the party members announced the exit and the creation of the Communist Party of Italy (ITAL. Partito Comunista D "Italia; the initial name was preserved until 1943). At the head of the Ot, Amadeo Borondig, chosen by the Secretary, and Antonio Gramsha, who headed the Radical Group "Ordine Nuovo" (Ial. L "Ordine Nuovo) in Turin. IKP takes part in the 1921 parliamentary elections (English), on which 4.6% of the votes of voters and 15 deputies are obtained.
Prohibition of fascists and underground work (1925 - 1943)
After coming to the power of the Fascists, headed by Mussolini, many parties, not separated by the right views, were forbidden and went underground. Among them were also socialists.
Exit from the underground (1944)
In 1944, the party came out of the underground, and during 1947-1948 participated in the formation of the government. In 1948, the Parliamentary elections were united with IKP to the People's Democratic Front.
In Union with Communists (1949 - 1990)
Activities in the 1990s and dissolution
Revival
Main article: Italian Socialist Party (2007)
Leaders
National Secretaries PSI since 1931:
- Pietro Nenny (1931-1945)
- Alessandro Pepini (1945-1946)
- Ivan Matteo Lombardo (1946-1947)
- Lelio Basso (1947-1948)
- Alberto Dzhacometti (1948-1949)
- Pietro Nenny (1949-1963)
- Francesco de Martino (1963-1968), co-secretary during the year of the Unified Socialist Party (1966-1968)
- Mauro Ferri (1968-1969)
- Francesco de Martino (1969-1970)
- Jacomo Mancini (1970-1972)
- Francesco de Martino (1972-1976)
- Bettino Kraxi (1976-1993)
- Georgio Benvenuto (1993)
- Ottaviano del Turko (1993-1994)
C 2007: Engriko Boselly (2007-2008) Riccardo Nencini (2008 - to this day)
Notes
Links
- Italian Socialist Party - article from the Big Soviet Encyclopedia
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Kingdom of both Sicily: Venice, Duchy of Modena, Parma, Lucca, Tuscany and Lombardy by the end of 1860 were able to unite around the Sardinian kingdom, headed by Victor Emmanuel second. He was the king of the Sardinian kingdom from 1849 to 1861. The Italian kingdom arose in 1861. King him and became Victor Emmanuel. Turin was announced the capital of the country in 1865, she moved to Florence. In the future, the capital became Rome.
Orders that existed in Sardinia were distributed throughout Italy. Her Print Act, adopted in 1849, became also commonlywali. Among the basic provisions of this law were the requirements for which publications were considered unacceptable, offensive for the royal majesty and members of his family, as well as the glorified forms of government who did not meet the constitutional monarchy. In particular, even the autocratic forms of government were not positively evaluated. Not allowed in the press of calls for class struggle. Such prison crimes were subject to prosecution.
Simultaneously with the Law on Printing in Sardinia, the law on public security also has also concerned print publications in particular, volatile leaves, appeals, ads. According to the law by
public security, they have been submitted to preview the police, which could confiscate any text. For the spreading sheets in the city followed the tax of five centimes. They were released from police control only electoral appeals. Some publishers enjoyed it. It was enough to start the flyer with the word "voters!" So that it is published without any restriction. Someone abused by this, the police strengthened control. Guilty in violations of this kind were attracted to judicial responsibility.
The royal prosecutor's office, its representatives in the field was given the right to confiscation of newspaper numbers if an invalid publication could appear in them. Each such a case was to be considered in court. And the decision on guilt was taken by jury. But the preparation for such vessels was distinguished by increased labor intensity, demanded extra time. And each fact of the confiscation of the newspaper room should be considered in court not later than three months after his accomplishment. Otherwise, the limitation period has expired. The court had no right to consider such a matter.
The situation has changed when in 1889 in the Italian kingdom was made an imposition of punishments. According to him, the responsibility for some prime crimes was changed. Thus, cases of excuses of any unlawful actions, which was characteristic of an anarchist press, calls for class struggle, which sounded from the pages of socialist newspapers were removed from the competence of the court of jurors and were transferred to the Crown Court who adhered to a more severe punitive policy.
Italian conservatives considered the law on the press is overly liberal. Make him more severe wanted General Pellet. He offered after the first confiscation to charge the pledge from the newspaper. Money would be transmitted to the state budget if the printed authority fell under secondary prosecution. After the third confiscation of any newspaper number, according to the idea of \u200b\u200bGeneral Pellet, the deposit was supposed to be entered in a doubled sum. It is clear that this practice would ruin all the freedom-loving, primarily republican newspapers. General Pellet offers did not receive support. He resigned. Liberal orders of press continued to operate.
However, there was not only secular, but also church power. She had an impact on periodic printing. On December 8, 1864, the Roman Pope Pius IX issued an encycle of Kuanta Kura. To this message was attached "Sillabus", or a list of "most important misconceptions of our time." In total, it was named about eighty "delusions". Among them, along with socialism and communism, both absolute and moderate rationalism were mentioned, all types of liberalism and so on. Critically evaluated
various achievements of modern civilization. In particular, the spiritual ideals of the motion of the Risorgemento-Sobrod of the press, the right to meetings and rallies, other principles of democracy, were categorically rejected. Sillabus became the main document for clerics, in which the Catholic ideology of those years received an exhaustive expression. It was the monument of ignorance and barbarism.
Especially wide and consistently "Sillabus" commented on the Clerical magazine "Lagura Catholic" ("Catholic reading"). The edition began to go from April 14, 1864. It was created by a group of young believers who considered themselves defenders of the Christian worldview. The editorial article of the first issue it was said that the task of the magazine is the struggle both with atheistic and rationalist literature and various types of manifestations of all types of liberalism, including moderate. "Logur Catholic" exposed "barbaric progress and barbaric state." Sillabus was used as a starting document in this criticism.
The magazine of Jesuit "Civic Catholic" ("Catholic Civilization") also had a significant weight. It was founded in 1850. The magazine "Civic Catholic" actively defended the ideas of Jesuit. The first editor was Padre Carlo Maria Kurch. He loved to repeat: "Not the pen write, but the mind." And consistently guided by this principle. In the Roman archive of the Orden of Jesuit, a confidential message of Kurchi dated November 12, 1865, addressed to the nearest associates. The author noted that the new conditions cannot be guided by old dogma. The Order of Jesuites should flexibly build its relationship with the Italian state. The Holy See is intended to conclude bilateral agreements with him in order to make it easier to carry out the secular power of the Pope. The first intermenimal, founded in 1864, created a new historical situation. It will turn the dissemination of "dangerous socialist ideas" in the society, which will undermine the foundations of religion. The Order of Jesuits should be ready for harsh tests to protect Christian creed.
On June 2, 1865, the article "Civic Catholic" was printed Social consequences There was no political naturalism. "The signature was not on it. But it is assumed that she wrote her Padre Liberator-aprover Yakovism, the nearest candidate of Pia IX IX. The article praised the" famous encycle of December 8 ", i.e." Sillabus "with a sharp criticism, she subjected those Who supported atheistic society and the state of boots. Special attention by the author paid human rights. Its conclusion: only the church guarantees absolute law, and not every church, but a Catholic.
In 1876, the magazine "Civic Catholic" fell with criticism on the ruling circles of Prussia, Spain and France for the fact that they "in the Union with Italian liberalism" create prerequisites for the establishment of the kingdom of socialism. "Those who today won over Catholics
(The liberals are meant - V.P.), tomorrow will be defeated by socialists, "said the editorial article.
From the mid-twenties of the 19th century in Italy, the economic lift began, which accelerated in the 30s-40s. Large success has reached silverity. Italy has become the main supplier of silk raw materials into the world market. England was purchased most of all. In Lombardy, there are 16.5 million mulberry tute trees, and in the middle of the 18th century. There were only 600 thousand significant transformation occurred in grain production, milk and meat animal husbandry. Feudal orders went to the past. The semi-feudal forms of the operation of the peasants were introduced. The number of factories and factories grew. Railway construction began to develop a rapid pace. For capitalist production, competent, developed workers were required. A significant part of the Italian population did not comply with high requirements. Low level The cultures of the people were brake on the way to progress.
Journalism was involved in the struggle for the education of workers. Special periodical editions were created, which were to contribute to improving the culture of the people. This was the Piemmon Magazine "Futing Polatari" ("Folk reading"), who passed his relay to the magazine "Logur Di Famiglia" ("Family reading"). Missed them Lorenzo Valeriio. In Tuscany, the "Guide's Guide") was published in Tuscany ("Guide for Education"), published by E. Meyer and J.Montanelli, as well as the magazine "Half Polator" ("People's Educator"). These publications interpreted the problems of public education in a paternalistic spirit, then There are charitable infants, creating an illusion of concerns about the interests of workers. Magazine " Folk literature", who defended the position of Liberals, inspired readers from the lower estates that their interests are close and understandable to the bourgeoisie, poor and rich can always find a common language, it is not necessary to exaggerate contradictions between them.
Particular attention was paid to the enlightenment of peasants. Actively engaged in this Piedmont "Agrarian Society". It originated in Turin in 1842. Combined large landowners in their ranks, the top officials of Piedmont. The main task was to develop agriculture and related processing industry. The "agrarian society" sections were created in all provinces of the Sardinian kingdom. They created schools and courses for peasants who promoted advanced agrotechnical and zootechnical techniques. C\u003e Gomomas contributed to the newspaper "Agrarian Society". Practical instructions for the use of progressive agricultural technologies were published on its pages, the results of various research on agricultural issues were promoted. Under the special control of the newspaper held the work of schools and courses for the peasants, generalized their practical experience.
An agricultural academy in Tuscany had his newspaper. She was also designed for the peasants. Contributed to their enlightenment, gave practical advice. Appeared on its pages and publications of a general economic nature. For example, the prospects for the development of free trade, which, of course, was interested in many peasants. The newspaper criticized the customs policy, which was held in Italy. Free exchange of goods between different regions of the country was limited. This prevented the national revival of Italy. The Tuscan newspaper "Gironnal Agrario" proved the need to introduce a unified system of measures, scales and monetary signs in the country. She was supported by the newspaper "Appaly."
The impact of the working class in May 1868 in Naples was created the Italian section of the first international unit.
On July 4, 1868, the first issue of the weekly newspaper "People" ("People") was published in Lods (Lombardy). She played an important role in the development of the Italian labor movement. The chief editors "Plear" was Enrico Biniam. He sought to use the newspaper to propaganda the ideas of socialism. Separate rooms of the newspaper were confiscated. Penalties were imposed on it. Employees "Plear" were repeatedly arrested. But the newspaper continued and went out, enjoyed great fame.
"Gadzietino Rose" ("Red Gazette") printed in Milan. She was
daily. Maintained close ties with the intermenimal as
International partnership workers based on K. Marks and
F. Engels in London September 28, 1864. Fought for cohesion
left forces in the working movement. In one of the numbers of this newspaper was
Published a large article of the Russian revolutionary, theorist
Anarchism Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunina (1814-1876),
Directed against the opportunism of Giuseppe Mazzini. Being a member
First internationally since 1864, Bakunin himself did not rarely retreated from
Marxism requirements. Criticizing Mazhini, he led the complex political
game. But for "Gadzietino Rosa" it was a valuable author. Publication
Received a big resonance.
An important role was played in Italy work societies they were created
According to the territorial basis, they acted in most cities. Their K.
The end of 1870 has about 1900 coordination
The interaction was ensured by convening the congresses of work societies. one
November 1871 was held another, twelfth. But profit
Representatives of only 135 societies. This testified to the emerging
Collapse in the working movement. With introductory speech before participants
Congress made Juseppe Mazzini. He recognized illegal
the actions of the French workers, called on the congress to condemn the Paris
Commune. The congress adopted such a resolution. In protest against her
Several delegates left the meeting room.
The greatest influence in Italy used Neapolitan
The working federation created in early 1872. Its printed organ
There was a newspaper "Campana" ("Bell"). The first number of this edition came out 7
January 1872. The editorial article said that the name
Newspapers should not be misleading. Newspaper is by no means
intends to "call for the hungry people to hatred and to revenge." She is
Only wants countless sacrifice together. "We
set themselves the task of expressing without anger, but without weak everything
new ideas; follow the incessant development of these new forces;
Finally, being an expression of the needs and actions of the proletariat, organ
Socialism, who instills such horror in the bourgeois, and in reality
is just another system of social device based
on freedom and equality, that is, at justice. "The newspaper recognized
The merits of Madainers during the settlement of the country. His historical
The role they played. But this experience is now belonging to the past. Newspaper
promoted the ideas of socialism, occupying a neutral position in
disagreements between the General Council of International and
anarchists. It existed for several months.
The Government of Italy sought to limit the scope of the labor movement. In the mid-seventies, the activities of the International was announced illegal. The revolutionaries involved in it began to prosecute to judicial responsibility. They were accused of conspiracy against the state. One of these trials was held in November 1879 in Florence. Among the defendants who were on the bench was the Russian woman Anna Markovna Kulishov. She interacted with various working societies, was printed in the "pleb", other revolutionary editions. Worked closely with the Italian revolutionary Andrea Kostya.
They became spouses. Daughter was born in the family. But hereinafter Anna
Kulishov turned out to be closely associated with the revolutionary Philip
Turturai. Graduate of the University of Bologna, he was fond of
journalism. Collaborated in Milan magazine
"Farfalla" ("Butterfly"), in the magazine "Republican Review", in
magazine "Prelude" ("Prelude"). But most often printed in the newspaper
"Plear". At the end of 1886, the magazine "RIVIST
Italian del Socialism "(" Italian Socialist Journal ").
Trap was printed in it.
In July 1889, with the active participation of Turtura, Kulishova, Podzari is created by the Milan Socialist League, which included both workers and intellectuals. The League played an important role in creating the party of Italian workers, which originated in 1892. Socialist press played an important role. Party of Italian Workers (Italian Socialist Party) belonged to more than fifty weekly periodicals. The leaders were "Avanti!"
("Forward!"), Published in Rome, and Temo ("Time"), which was printed in Milan.
In Italy, the party printing is formed and formed. It has a number of features, typical signs. The printed party body must defend the program goals of his party, participate in solving strategic and tactical tasks facing it. Current facts and events he assesses in accordance with its party position. Gives advice and recommendations to party members.
The official body of the Liberal Party was the newspaper "Tribune". It was founded in 1883 by Prince of Syari, in 1900 he moved into the hands of Senator Ru. It was a supporter of reforms. Extremely reservedly referred to the three-way union (the military-political block of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy), half amemizing with the newspapers that supported it. In particular, with "Popolo Romano", founded in 1873, which was a convinced supporter of the three-way union.
The Republican Party had two daily printed organs: "Jornal del Popolo" ("People's Gazeta") and "Italia Del Polololo" ("People's Italy"). These newspapers justified the advantages of the republican form of government, analyzed possible options Improving the electoral system, popularized the program goals of their party.
Clean was almost every city of Italy had a daily newspaper. The main among them was the "Romano Osservatory" ("Roman Observer"), the control body of the Holy See (Pope). The leading Catholic publications were the "Cattolica District" ("Catholic Observer"), "Liberta Cattolico" in Naples, an organ of archbishopal curia in Naples, "Solet" in Palermo. In 1919, the first political party of Italian Catholics was created. She was headed by Luigi Sturso. In 1894, he became a priest. It became close to the movement of Christian Democrats. In 1897, he founded a weekly newspaper "La Costa Di Kostantino" in Calta Fažirone ("Cross Kostantino"). Defended the principal provisions of Catholicism, fought with atheism, exposed socialist theories, although he called on Christian Democrats to focus on the "democratic rise of the lower classes", to use it in order to lift the authority of the church.
On May 15, 1891, the Vatican Newspaper "Roman Observator" ("Roman Observer") published the encyclical of the Pope Lion XIII. She was called "Remum Novaum". It was an antsocialist document. At the same time, Dad admitted that in Italy serious social conflicts are brewing. Therefore, it is necessary to take action "to assist the proletariat." Socialists are not trying to look for them. They "excite the poor hate to rich", fighting with private property, want to destroy the family. Therefore, Catholics strongly refuse them in support. Encyclick emphasized that social inequality is inevitable, it is possible to overcome its sharpness due to
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collaboration classes. The entire Catholic press highly appreciated the "Remum Novaum", recognized this document historically important, epochial.
The party of the conservatives was represented by the Liebert newspaper ("free") created in Rome in 1870. Here in 1873 he began to publish "Popolo Romance" ("Roman people") is the main body of the right political forces. These publications were struggled with all revolutionary trends, actively defended the right of private property, defended the moral values \u200b\u200bof capitalism.
By the beginning of the 20th century, Italian nationalism was widespread in the country. He corresponded to the requirements of the bourgeois and petty-bourgeois ideology, defended the ideas of national superiority and national exclusivity, was used to establish the "class world", split the labor movement. The printed organ of the nationalists was the magazine "Reno" ("Kingdom"). I was adjacent to the Journal of Leonardo, named after Leonardo da Vinci, although the latter often elevenized with Reno. In the future, the newspaper Nationalists "Tricolor" ("three-color flag") was created, reflected in the title of the originality of the design of the National Flag of Italy. This newspaper appeared in 1908. She consistently criticized socialist ideas, called for the fight against their supporters. Even the king of the newspaper was suspected of connections with a revolutionary movement.
In December 1910, the nationalists held their first congress. The main report was called "Proletarian classes - socialism, proletarian nation - nationalism." After the congress, the newspaper "Idea National" ("National Idea") was created, which played a big role in the design of the movement ..
Military Correspondent Marineti was very popular among nationalists. But another nationalist of Gabriel D "Anunzio, who was a combat pilot, in one of the battles lost their eyes, was used by the battle. The battle biography contributed to the approval of the authority of this person. He provided great fame and journalistic activities.
Actively opposed the nationists italian
Socialist Party, originally called Italian
Party of workers and created in 1890. Within this party
Thread-unionist, social reform tendencies prevailed. But
The influence of it was very significant. Already in parliamentary elections
1900, the Italian Socialist Party (SPI) spent in
National Parliament 33 deputies. Success promoted stamp
Socialists. In 1910, the left wing appeared inside
"Revolutionary Fraction". "Left" created their Central Committee, AC 1911 and
Own central printed organ - Soffitt newspaper ("Cherdak").
Benito Mussolini was closely connected with the socialist movement of Italy (1883-1945). At one time he edited "Avanti!". I knew the works of Marx, Kautsky, Selor. Often spoke S.
reports and lectures in various cities of Italy. When Mussolini came to "Avanti!", This newspaper edited Jachinto Seriarai. With Mussolini "Avanti!" She became the Tribune of "Maxim" - figures who advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat. Antonio Gramshi, Palmyir Togliatti, who called on the example of Russian Bolsheviks to create a new political party of revolutionary-proletarian type were printed in it. To implement this idea, a special printed organ - the newspaper "Ordine Nuovo" ("New Stroy"), which began to be released from May 1, 1919. It was the group "Ordina Nuovo" laid the foundation of the Italian Communist Party. The constituent congress of the Italian Communist Party / ICP / took place in Livorno in January 1921. The ICR management settled in Milan, but later moved to Rome. On October 11, 1921, the newspaper "Communist" ("Communist") began to publish. Since the end of 1921, the Communists began to make the newspaper "Lavorator" ("worker"). On February 12, 1924, the first room "Unity" ("Unity") was published in Milan - the body of the Italian Communist Party.
In 1921, the Italian National Fascist Party was formed. Actively promoted its creation of capitalists related to the military industry. The interests of the fascists reflected the newspaper "Popolo d" ITALIA. She justified the prospects for the program goals of the new movement, criticized his opponents, primarily the socialists. Supported the Italian king Victor Emmanuel third. He appointed Mussolini, whom the socialists were excluded from their ranks in 1914, The head of the government. Soon in the country was introduced the regime of the fascist terror. There was a strictest political censor. Criticism of the regime was considered unacceptable. The fascists eliminated the national federation of Italian press (the federation of the National Male Stampa Italyan - FNSI), established their print service (Ufuffy Stampa) instead of her . In 1924, the Mussolini news agency of Stephanie appeared. The government included the Ministry of Press and Propaganda, later renamed to the cultural bureau.
Fascists willingly created their own newspapers. They belonged to "Jornale d" ITALIA "(" Gazeta Italy ", Rome)," Popolo d "Italy (Milan)." Popoli di Roma "was located under fascist control. Mussolini said:" I consider fascist journalism as my own orchestra. " This "orchestra" was included in Loveoro Fascist ("Fascist Labor"), "Impero", ("Empire"), "Reggie Fascist" ("Fascist Regulation"), "Assalto" ("Sturm") and others. In newspapers It was forbidden to work to journalists who did not have a membership ticket of the fascist party. The newspaper employees were constantly re-released, ideologically processed. Such instructions gave Mussolini personally.
Incomom publishers, fascists in the initial period of their activities were subjected to physical disgraces. Their printing houses could
to be sequential with local prefects or simply burned by raging squadry. In the future, unwanted newspapers were closed simply by the will of the authorities.
Decisively led to the fight against the fascist regime, being in the underground, the Communist "Unita", the newspaper "Statov Operation" ("Working State"), the magazine "Battalia Syndicali" ("trade union battles" - this magazine was published in Paris), socialist "Avanti! ".
Some of the regional newspapers played an important role in the country. One of the most popular was the "Cyrrhet della Sere" ("Evening Mail"). It was founded in Milan in 1876 by the owner of Textile enterprises Benino Kressev. The bright content was able to fill the newspaper Journalist Eudzhhenio Torerely - 1842-1900. He was able to group the best literary forces of Italy around this printed organ (Giovanni Verga, Grazia Deledda, Luigi Pilandello, Hugo Oeetti, etc.) The Estahato Torelli continued another journalist Albertini (1871-1941). He turned it into the stands of the Italian intellectual elite. Much attention to the newspaper began to devote to the problems of literature, art. The selection of culture news was tightened. If some information came to the third page "Correre", then almost always she found her grateful reader: the newspaper knew his audience well.
It was very popular in Italy, the moderately liberal newspaper "Secolo" ("Century") was most popular in Milan. The weight of the newspaper "Stampa" ("print"), which was produced and manufactured in Turin. It was founded in 1865. It comes out daily. It is a newspaper liberal direction.
Characteristic feature The Italian newspaper was that it is similar to his French "sister" due to major analytical articles. As well as on the English, discharge of the main place the chronicle, appreciating it above all. Italian newspapers willingly printed advanced articles. Usually its author is the editor. The signature in this case was not set: the responsibility for the advanced article carries the entire edition.
The most influential was the newspapers of the country. But on the variety of forms of filing materials, the journalistic fiction was more interesting to be periodic seal of the south of Italy.
Significant changes and country occurred after World War II. On June 2, 1946, a national referendum was held in Italy. The main part of the Italians participating in it spoke for the republic, a minority - for the monarchy. On December 22, 1947, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution Italian Republic. In 1947, 114 daily newspapers were published in Italy, about 700 weeks. Instead of the fascist agency Stephanie, a new news agency for the press of adntscia National Assochast Stampa was created (National Unified Print Agency). It is
until now, the cooperative association of leading Italian newspapers. At the same time, the National Federation of Italian Print was recreated.
The number of daily newspapers has been consistently reduced. In 1962, they were numbered 90. By 1973, 79 remained. Including 14 openly recognized themselves by political parties. The number of left newspapers with 23 decreased to 5.
The Italian Communist Party disappeared. Instead, it was created by the Italian Communist Transformation Part. The newspaper "UNITA" moved to the left democrats. The daily communist newspaper of the country became "liberation" as an organ of the Italian Communist Transformation Party. It remains an intellectual-communist newspaper "Manifesto", which has not changed its ideological principles. It represents a cross between "united" and "liberation".
After the Second World War in Italy, the splicing of newspaper and publishing business with business industrial and economic business is planned. The owner of the oil refinery, oil-filling courts Atilio Monty, also engaged in the production of sugar and alcohol, also acquired their own periodic publications. In Livenly, he bought the Telegraph newspaper, in Bologna - "Resto del Cyarlino" and sports "Stadio", in Florence - "National", in Rome - "Jornale D" ITALY "and" Moment of Seres ". He became one of the largest newspaper Magnates. Actively participate in the news and publishing activities "Ititchenti" (cement monopoly), Concern "Eridan" (Sugar Monopoly). The owner of such newspapers as a "Cyrrhera della" and "Stampa" was the Fiat Concern. "Stampa" belongs to him directly And "Corrier della Sere" through the Financial Holding of Jeemin. In it, Fiat owns a controlling stake. Aniel, who led Fiat, formed the informational policy of these periodicals. Special attention was paid to the problems of culture, first of all, literature. Such publications usually appear on Third bands. It is they who define the face of the "Cyrrhet della Sere" and "Stampa".
In Italy, there are about 200 religious publishers with an annual turnover of 300 billion lire. This is 8.5 percent of the entire Publishing Industry of the country. The most famous publishing houses of Clericov are "La Skol di Brescia" and "This" in Turin, specializing in the release of school literature. Equally popular religious publishing houses "En Crewing Ragoline", "Piemma", "Crentro Deoniano". 134 diocesan weekly are issued. The leading role is played by the daily newspaper Vatican "Osservator Romano", which has weekly issues in German, French, Spanish and Portuguese. The Vatican also publishes the weekly "Sunday Observer"), theoretical magazine of the Orden of Jesuit "Civic Catholic" ("Catholic civilization"),
monthly Bulletin of the Holy See "Act of the Apostolic Sedis" ("Apostolic Acts"), the annual of the secretariat of the Vatican "Annoario Pontifficho" ("Shpa Yearbook"). The Vatican is owned by two book publishing houses "Libryra Editric Vatican" and "Type Photo of the Vatican Polyglot". In Italy, 450 Catholic radio stations and about 50 local television centers have been created. Radio Vatican supplies with its programs Catholic radio stations of various Italian dioceses and European countries.
Now in Italy there are about 150 news agencies serving periodic printing, television and broadcasting.
The leading information agency of the country and now is the adnts of the National Assochastic Stamp / Ansea. It is based on a group of newspaper and magazine publishing houses at a cooperative basis. His headquarters has in Rome. Anse provides subscribers internal and international information. Supports links with 65 information agencies. Anse is associated with 960 customers in Italy and abroad. In Italy, reports of this agency receive 82 newspapers, 32 radio and television stations, 18 agencies and 470 other subscribers. Anse employs 830 people, including correspondents abroad and technical workers. The supreme body of the Agency is the Anse Assembly, convened at least once a year and choosing the President of Anse, as well as the Administrative Council. Anse is a member of the European Alliance of Print Agencies - EAEP.
The second largest information agency is considered to be an informational agency Agenation of Jornalistics ITALIA (Journalistic Agency of Italy -Uki). It is founded in 1950 and is located in Rome.
