In the 30 years, the USSR foreign policy has passed 3 main stages
1928-1933 In Europe, allied relations with Germany. Expansion of contacts with other states. In the East Promotion to China, the activation of relations with Afghan and Iran. In 1929, there was a conflict on the East-Chinese railway station, which was under joint Soviet-Chinese government. Parts of the Chinese Army, with the support of Russian emigrants, tried to capture the CEG, invaded the Soviet territory, but were broken down by a special Far Eastern army under the command of Blikhin.
1933-1939 Advanced with England France and the United States on Antigherman and Antiappon-based basis. Collective security plan in Europe. The desire to preserve the spheres of influence in the East. And avoid direct confrontation with Japan.
1933 Central Committee of the CPSU. Decided to fight for collective security. He proposed to conclude a collective pact of mutual assistance to a wide range of European states. In 1934, the USSR was adopted in the League of Nations. When Germany introduced universal military service. The rapprochement of France and the USSR began. In 35, the Soviet-French treaty on mutual assistance was signed in the event of an attack of any European state. In September, a similar agreement was signed with Czechoslovakia. From October 1936, the USSR begins to provide considerable military assistance to the Soviet Spanish Republicans. At the same time, in the West was attached to Germany Austria. In 1938, the Munich Credit was held on which Czechoslovakia was joined to Germany. These events finally convinced the USSR to change their course foreign Policy. In the summer of 1938, part of the Japanese army passed the Soviet border in the area of \u200b\u200bLake Hasan. But during fierce battles were knocked out from the territory of the Soviet Union. In May 1939, Japan is attacked to the Mongolian People's Republic in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Halkenhol River. In August, Soviet troops under the command of Zhukov defeated Japan.
1939-June 1941 USSR became close to Germany Japan. In the summer of 1939, Anglo-Russian-French negotiations were failed. And the USSR made a choice in favor of Germany. In August 39, a non -parement pact was concluded between Germany and the USSR. (Molotova-Rebatertop). The secret appendix to the Pact was divided by the spheres of the influence of Germany and the USSR. According to this application, Germany introduces their troops to Poland on September 1, 39. The USSR joins Western Ukraine and Western Belarus (September 17). And in September, a friendship agreement was concluded.
21. The era of Napoleonic Wars. Patriotic War of 1812.
In very early XIX. in. Russia adhered to neutrality in European affairs. However, Napoleon's aggressive plans forced Alexander I oppose him. In 1805, the 3rd coalition against France: Russia, Austria and England. The war began to be extremely unsuccessful for the Allies. In November 1805, their troops were defeated under Austerlitz. Austria came out of the war, the coalition collapsed.
Russia, continuing to fight alone, tried to create a new union against France. In 1806 formed 4th Coalition: Russia, Prussia, England and Sweden. However, the French army forced Prussia to capitulate for just a few weeks. Recomptly Russia turned out to be lonely before the formidable and strong opponent. In June 1807, she lost the battle near Friedlyand. 7Thow forced Alexander I to join Napoleon to the world negotiations.
In summer 1807 in Tilsit Russia and France signed peaceful, and then the Union Treaty. According to his conditions, the Duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon's protector was created from Prussia. This territory in the future has become a bridgehead for attacking Russia. The Tilzit Treaty ordered Russia to join the continental blockade of the UK and break political relations with it. The gap of traditional trade relations with England has caused significant damage to the Russian economy, undermining its finance. Nobles, the material well-being of which largely depended on the sale of Russian agricultural products in England, showed special discontent with this condition and personally Alexander I. The Tilzite world was unprofitable for Russia. At the same time, he gave her a temporary respite in Europe, allowing you to intensify policies on the eastern and northwest directions.
Causes and character of war. Patriotic War 1812 is the largest event of Russian history. Her emergence was caused by the desire of Napoleon to achieve world domination. Despite the Tilzite Treaty, Russia continued to counteract the expansion of Napoleonic aggression. Special irritation of Napoleon caused a systematic violation of the continental blockade. Since 1810, both sides, understanding the inevitability of a new collision, prepared for war.
In the military conflict of the two sides, Napoleon became the aggressor. He began hostilities and invaded Russian territory. In this regard, for the Russian people, the war became the liberation. Domestic. It was attended by not only the personnel army, but also wide popular masses.
The ratio of power. Preparing for war against Russia, Napoleon collected a significant army to 678 thousand soldiers. These were perfectly armed and trained troops, hardened in previous wars. The vulnerable place of his army was its multinational composition (Germans, Spaniards, Poles, Portuguese).
Active preparation for the war, which Russia led since 1810, brought its results. The troops were headed by talented military leaders M.I. Kutuzov, M.B. Barclay de Tollya, P.I. Bagration and others. They differed in great military experience and personal courage. The advantage of the Russian army was determined by the patriotic inspiration of all segments of the population, large human resources and food reserves.
Play of Parties. Napoleon planned to seize a significant part of Russian territory until Moscow and sign a new agreement with Alexander to subordinate Russia. He intended to be connected to dispersed Russian forces and decide the outcome of war in one or several border battles. The Russian emperor and his entourage Even on the eve of the war decided not to go with Napoleon any compromises.
The beginning of the war. On the morning of June 12, 1812, the French troops crossed themselves through Neman and the forced march invaded Russia.
The 1st and 2nd Russian armies retreated, evading the general battle. Two main tasks stood before the Russian troops, do not let you smash themselves alone and establish uniqueness in the army. The first task was solved July 22, when the 1st and 2nd Army connected under Smolensky. Thus, the initial intention of Napoleon was ripped. 8 August Alexander appointed M.I. Kutuzov commander-in-chief of the Russian army. This meant the solution of the second task. M.I. Kutuzov accepted the command of the United Russian forces on August 17. He did not change the tactics of retreat. Therefore, he gave an order to look for a position for the general battle. She was found at the village of Borodino in 130 km from Moscow.
Battle of Borodino. M.I. Kutuzov elected defensive tactics and in accordance with this put his troops. Napoleon adhered to offensive tactics. He intended to break through the defense of the Russian army on the flanks, to surround it and finally defeat.
Early in the morning of August 26, the French began unsuccessful offensive on the left flank. Russians organizedly retreated and occupied the position of Semenovsky ravine. Napoleon sent the main blow to the center. M.I. Kutuzov ordered the Cossacks and the equestrian building to raid in the rear of the French. Napoleon was forced to interrupt the battery storm for almost 2 hours.
Offensive impulse of the French army dried up. Losses on both sides were huge. Borodino was the moral and political victory of the Russians: the combat potential of the Russian army was preserved, Napoleonic was significantly weakened.
OR Moscow to Maloyaroslavets. After Borodino, the Russian troops began to retreat to Moscow. On September 1, the Military Council of the Russian Command in the village of Fili. M.I. Kutuzov, decided to leave Moscow. The French army entered it on September 2, 1812
Moscow's occupation did not benefit Napoleon. Left by residents, she was having fluffed in fire fires. It did not have food or other supplies. Its decomposition was so strong that Napoleon had only two outlets or immediately conclude the world, or to start a retreat. But all the peaceful proposals of the French emperor were unconditionally rejected by M.I. Kutuzov and Alexander.
On October 7, the French left Moscow. On October 12, the city of Maloyaroslavets occurred another bloody battle. The French were stopped and forced to retreat on them of a ruined Smolensk road.
Exile of Napoleon from Russia.The retreat of the French army was similar to messy flight. It accelerated the unfolded partisan movement and the offensive actions of Russian troops.
At the final stage of war, M.I. Kutuzov elected tactics of parallel persecution. Serious damage was inflicted by the French under the city of Krai in early November, when out of 50 thousand people of the retreating army more than half were captured or fell in battle. Fearing environments Napoleon hurried to forward his troops on November 14-17 across the Berezina River. The battle in the forwarding tried to defeat the French army. Napoleon threw her and secretly went to Paris. Order M.I. Kutuzov in the army December 21 and Tsar Manifesto 25 December 1812 marked the completion of the Patriotic War.
The meaning of war. Patriotic War of 1812 Greatest Event in Russian History. Heroism, courage, patriotism and selfless love of all seats of society and especially ordinary people to their homeland appeared brightly. However, the war inflicted a significant, damage to the economy of Russia, which was estimated at 1 billion rubles. About 2 million killed. Many Western regions of the country were ruined. All this had a huge impact on the further internal development of Russia.
After World War I, international relations were determined by the Versailles-Washington system - a number of contracts and agreements in favor of winning countries. Germany was announced by the only guilty of the war and was supposed to pay reparations - payments to other states affected by the war.
She lost part of the territory in Europe and its colonies, should have reduced the army.
Versailles-Washington system ignored the interests of not only Germany, but also by Soviet Russia. This circumstance contributed to the approach of these two countries in the international arena. Germany purchased raw materials in the USSR, food, led on its territory the preparation of military personnel and the test of technology prohibited by the Versailles.
The development of events showed that the economic revival of Germany was beneficial to the winners, otherwise it was impossible to receive reparations. In the summer of 1924, the International Conference in London adopted a Dower Plan, according to which American and British banks provided Germany to restore the economy. Intensifying economically, Germany did not suit the unequal position in the system international relations. The Locarnas International Conference of 1925 was important in Germany in Germany as a whole in the spirit of the preservation of the Versailles-Washington system. However, Germany refused to guarantee its eastern borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia, considering them unfair. Despite this, next year (1926), Germany was adopted in the League of Nations and received a permanent place in its advice, like other great powers. It was the first step to revise the Versailles-Washington system.
France feared the revengery aspirations of Germany. In 1928, France Foreign Minister Brian nominated the idea of \u200b\u200bsigning an agreement on the refusal of war as a means
national Policy. All the leading states, including the USSR, signed a Bakian-Kellog pact.
The international situation was unstable. In 1925-1926, Anglo-Soviet relations aggravated. The USSR was accused of interfering in the internal affairs of England. The reason was the material assistance provided by the Soviet unions of the English workers during universal strikes. In 1927, the British government broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, annulled a trade agreement.
The global economic crisis that began at the end of 1929 led to the restructuring of international relations. Lost stability of the financial and currency system of capitalist countries, including Germany. In 1929, the Special Committee under the leadership of Jung decided to reduce reparation payments. France and England, having ceased to receive reparations, also stopped paying their US military debts. Taking advantage of this, Germany in 1932 achieved the final abolition of reparations. This led to the cessation of debt payment, despite the resistance of the United States.
Thus, the entire system of post-war payments collapsed under the blows of the global economic crisis. In the same 1932, Germany, in principle, was recognized by her equality in the field of weapons.
The first country, which discarded the principles of the Versailles-Washington system and applied the power in the struggle for the new redistribution of the world, became Japan. She competed with the United States to establish domination over China and in the Pacific Pool. In September 1931, the Japanese troops began the occupation of northeastern China (Manchuria). Having captured all Manchuria, Japan created on the occupied territory the puppet state of Manzhou. When, after long-wires, the League of Nations in his resolution condemned the capture of Manchuria and demanded to return it to China, Japan came out of the League of Nations in March 1933 and began the occupation of a number of other provinces of North China.
The main focus of the Second World War emerged in the center of Europe, in Germany. Here in January 1933 the fascist dictatorship was established. The Fascists of Germany intended any means to cancel the restrictions established in Versailles, to fight for the return of colonies and additional territories for the Germans. Economic difficulties in the country they were explained by the infringement of Germany at the international
arena and disadvantage of territories for the development of the German people. The secret weapons of the country accelerated. In the fall of 1933, Germany left the League of Nations, left the Geneva Conference on Disarmament and was freedom to further violate articles of the Versailles. In March 1935, a universal military service was restored in the country. A year later, German troops were introduced into the Rhine Demilitarized Zone. Thus, military articles of the Versailles and Locarnic Agreements of 1925 were violated. These actions, Germany accompanied the refusal to participate in the creation of a European collective security system, the project of which in the mid-1930s was actively discussed in Europe. All this testified to the preparation of the Hitler's rule of opportunities to unleash the war. And although in January 1934, the German-Polish treaty on friendship and nonsense was signed in Berlin, the Fascists of Germany was scheduled for Poland one of the first victims in the struggle for the redistribution of peace.
In the decor of international tension, many countries were looking for new allies. Attempts to create a collective security system by conclusion international treaties On the performance of the united front against the aggressor. France, concerned about the enhancement of Germany, began to look for the way to cooperate with the USSR (Russia was the traditional ally of France). The USSR also searched for allies in the West and with the support of France in the fall of 1934 entered the League of Nations. An attempt was made to conclude an Eastern Covenant on mutual assistance in the event of aggression. He was supposed to sign a number of Baltic and Eastern European countries. However, this was not possible due to the opposition of Germany and Poland, who feared the growth of the influence of the USSR in Europe. In May 1935, bilateral Soviet-French and Soviet-Czechoslovak treaties on mutual assistance were signed. They could become an obstacle on the path of Hitler's aggression. But Western circles regarded contracts from the USSR as a maneuver, and not as a long-term strategy, and were not going to fulfill their obligations.
The policy of concern to aggressors led to the 30s to increase the foci of war and international tension.
In the fall of 1935 fascist Italy Began an aggressive condocent war against Ethiopia (Abyssinian). The Council of the League of Nations recognized Italy by the aggressor and made a decision on the application of economic and financial sanctions to it. But back
laya and weak Ethiopia has become a light prey of the aggressor. In the shortest seaways from Europe to Asia, another node of the military conflict was tied.
In July 1936, a military fascist rebellion broke out in Spain, at the head of which General Franco stood. A long civil war began in the country. The ruling circles of the West offered to adhere to the events in Spain "Non-interference policies". In words, agreeing with this, Germany and Italy supplied weapons and troops to General Franco, while the Legal Republican Government of Spain was subjected under the slogan of "non-interference" of the present blockade. Only Soviet Union Help the Spanish Republic of weapons, food, sent volunteers there. "Non-interference policy" contributed to the victory of rebels and establishing Franco's fascist dictatorship in Spain.
Gradually, the aggressors began to converge. In October 1936, the German-Italian Agreement on joint actions in international politics was signed. In November of the same year, Germany and Japan concluded the so-called "Anchikominean Pact". They were obliged to inform each other about the activities of the Comintern and to fight against the "International Communism". In 1937, Italy joined the Antico Minister Pact. The signing of the Covenant strengthened the position of aggressors, contributed to the preparation of the war for the redistribution of peace. The edge of the block was directed not only against the USSR, but also against the USA, Great Britain and France.
The main role in the Union of Agressors played Germany. By 1938, her armed forces grew so much that she was able to switch to the violent crossroads of the Central European map. The policy of territorial seizures was carried out under the slogan of the unification of all Germans as part of a single state. This slogan has already justified itself during a plebiscite on the belonging of the Saaric region. The Saaric region is 15 years old under the control of the League of Nations. After this period, it departed to Germany in accordance with the results of plebiscite (1935). In March 1938, Hitler's troops, hiding behind the slogan of the unification of the Germans in a single state, invaded Austria and occupied it. A few days later, this country was included in the German Reich. This is an accession (German Anshalus)
it was a violent nature and was an act of a gross violation of the Versailles. The governments of Western countries were limited to the verbal protest and did not support the USSR offer to convene an international conference to organize aggressors.
Such behavior of aggressors has become possible due to the passive, expectant policy of European states and the US neutrality. The leading western policies stated that their main goal is to prevent the war, even if the concessions of the aggressors (the so-called deformation policy). In the US, a law on neutrality was adopted, which forbade the sale of weapons and military materials to the warring parties, without making differences between the aggressor and the victim of the attack.
Impunity encouraged Germany to new captures. She demanded the transfer of Czechoslovakia to her, in whose territory a German national minority lived. To solve this issue in September 1938, the conference of the heads of the Government of Four countries took place in Munich: Germany (Hitler), Italy (Mussolini), England (Chamberlain) and France (Daladye). She entered the story as Munich Credit, or Munich Transaction. On it, Western circles solved the fate of Czechoslovakia. The sudden region was transmitted to Germany. Due to Czechoslovakia, territorial claims were satisfied with the bourgeois landlords of Poland and Hungary. Under the British and France, the Government of Czechoslovakia adopted the Munich Agreement, without contacting the Soviet Union (according to the terms of the Soviet-Czechoslovak agreement, 1935, assistance could be provided only after the request for her and with the participation of France). The Munich transaction was aimed at insulation of the USSR in the international arena and on the podium-visation of Hitler's aggression to the East. By the summer of 1939, an increasingly obvious error in the politician of the appearance of aggressors was becoming. In March 1939, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist as an independent state, was dismantled for individual areas, in one degree or another subordinates of Germany. In April 1939, Hitler announced the termination of the Polish-German Non-Space Treaty. Italy and Germany refused all previously concluded agreements and openly burned the war in Europe. March 23, 1939
the German troops occupied Klaipeda, and on April 7, Italy attacked Albania.
Under the influence of these events, the public opinion of England and France has changed in favor of a decisive opposition of aggression. Governments of these countries announced the guarantees of the independence of Poland, Romania, Greece, joined negotiations from the USSR on the possibility of cooperation. The position of the USSR in the international arena was extremely important. With the USSR Union with England and France, a powerful block against the aggressor would be created. Having opposed them together with Germany, the USSR would create a critical, hopeless situation for them, would facilitate the actions of Germany in the West. Even the neutrality of the USSR could be different and in different ways to influence the development of events. The USSR suggested that England and France cooperation in the fight against aggressors. However, the neglected negotiations revealed a large mutual distrust, began to delay. Western partner fluctuations led to the fact that soviet leadership In parallel, went on rapprochement with Germany, so as not to be in isolation. On August 12, 1939, the negotiations of Anglo-Franco-Soviet military missions began in Moscow. But on August 17, they were suspended, and Soviet-German negotiations at the level of foreign ministers were intensified. On August 23, 1939, the Soviet-German Treaty was signed (Molotov - Ribbentrop Covenant) about non-fire. It consisted of the main text and secret addition - a protocol in which the spheres of the influence and interests of Germany and the USSR were distributed. The sphere of interests of the Soviet Union includes the Baltic Republic, Romania (claimed the claims of the USSR on Bessarabia). The boundaries of the influence of the USSR and Germany were installed in Poland along the rivers of Nariav, Vistula and San (Western Ukraine and Western Belarus went out to the USSR). It was not just a contract, but a contract of two dictatorships on the future separation of territories. He accelerated the unleashing of World War II, providing Germany's neutrality of the USSR.
Thus, the contradictions between European states and their mutual mistrust prevented the creation of a system of collective security. Fascist aggressors got the opportunity to unleash the war for the redistribution of peace.
Questions in paragraph
1. Think what causes of international recognition of the USSR?
The reasons for the recognition of the USSR: the need to build economic and trade relations, solving the problem of royal debts, the decision of the political issues of the post-war world.
2. What are the reasons for the change of the position of the winning countries in relation to Germany? Think whether these countries were united in their desire to support German economy?
The need to preserve the economic integrity of Europe, because Destroy in Germany negatively affected the trade and economic relations of European countries. Also dividing the attitude towards Germany, as the defeated side, contributed to the growth of nationalist and revenge ones.
Not all countries were one. For example, France still feared the strengthening of Germany and sought to prevent her revival economic power, especially in the field of military production. At the same time, the United States and the United Kingdom were more interested in the speedy economic recovery of Germany.
3. Remember what the causes of the global economic crisis broke out in 1929 as it developed and which countries affected the greatest extent? Think what influence he had to develop international relations.
The causes of the economic crisis of 1929 were: the overproduction crisis, because Mass production did not fit massive demand, speculation on the stock exchange and a sharp drop in the cost of securities.
The crisis developed rapidly and affected almost all countries of the world, especially the US economy: first of all it european countries: England, France, Germany, who, after the First World War, became US debtors. As well as China, which enjoyed the US economic support, Japan, which also took cheap American loans. As a result, crisis had a significant impact on international relations, because Economic difficulties exacerbated political and territorial disagreements between countries.
4. What are you, in your opinion, the reasons for the policy of "Decience", held against Germany?
The reasons for the policy of pacification became: the cost of a new arms race, the desire to prevent the new European war with the price of concessions to the aggressor, as well as faith in the ability to negotiate with the leader in Germany.
5. What is explained by the sharp position of Poland and Romania against the USSR?
The sharp position of Poland and Romania against the USSR is explained by concerns to be under Soviet control, which meant significant changes in the life of these countries, as well as the belief that England and France are more reliable allies.
Questions at the end of the paragraph
1. What changes in the system of international relations occurred in the 1920s.?
In the 1920s. The following changes have occurred in international relations: the recognition of the USSR began, the approach of the winners of England and the United States has changed to defeated Germany (they sought to the early restoration of the country), in 1925 the Locarnian conference was held, which was designed to resolve territorial disputes and confirm European borders. In 1928, the countries of the world tried to abandon the war as a policy of politics by entering into the Bakian-Kellog Pact.
2. What questions of international relations remained not settled by the Versailles system of contracts? Under what circumstances do these "bars" detected in the post-war period?
The Versailles system of contracts did not regulate territorial disputes in Europe, especially the borders of Germany with Poland and Czechoslovakia. This dispute manifested itself at the Locarnian Conference, which should have solved territorial issues and guarantee post-war borders. As a result, Germany had the opportunity to challenge the boundaries installed in the versal with their oriental neighbors. Attempts to Great Britain and France to incline Germany to conclude it by nonsense agreements with Czechoslovakia and Poland were unsuccessful.
3. List the "axis countries". What were the goals and objectives of the foreign policy of these states? (In search of a response to this question, refer to the previously studied paragraphs.)
"Axis countries" - Germany and Italy, Japan. The goals of Germany were: revising the Versailles, the restoration of Germany as a great power, the conquest of domination in Europe, the conquest of living space in the East. Italy is to establish control over the Mediterranean Sea. Establishing control over countries of Asian under the slogan (Asia for Asians
4. How did the relations of Western European countries developed with the Soviet Union in the interwar period? What are the reasons for change in this matter?
the relations of the country of Western Europe and the USSR developed ambiguously. By the mid-1930s. The USSR and France, where at that time the Popular Front was in power, came to the Agreement on the creation of a collective security system in Europe. By concluding a mutual assistance agreement, each country concluded such an agreement with Czechoslovakia. The United Kingdom was not ready for such a rapprochement from the USSR. However, the political shift in France and the British policy of "peacekeeping" divorced three countries in relation to European events. The USSR offered to unite efforts against Germany, while England and France hoped to agree with her. Only in 1939, three countries tried to conclude a military union, but because of mutual distrust could not come to a consecration
5. Name events indicating that the world in the 30s. XX century Approach to the New World War.
1935 Introduction of the Universal Military Meetility in Germany
1936 Entering German troops in the Rhine Zone
1937 Invasion of Japan in China
1938 Anchlus Austria and the accession of the Sudetening Region Czechoslovakia to Germany
1939 Czechoslovakia and Klaipeda (in Lithuania) Germany
1938 and 1939 Soviet-Japanese collisions on Lake Hassan and r. Chalchin-goal.
Summer 1939 Unfortunate negotiations of England-France-USSR. German-Soviet nonsense pact.
Questions to the source
1. Analyze the text of the agreement. Show how it strengthened the position of Germany and helped her prepare for war.
This agreement strengthened the position of Germany in the fact that Western countries agreed with the weakening of their alliance - Czechoslovakia. The agreement showed the readiness of Western countries to make concessions to German requirements.
2. Compare the texts of the Soviet-German Covenant on non-fire and the secret protocol to it. Is it possible to assume that the parties sought to the Fair World in Europe?
No, because The parties sought to block the map of Europe and solve their territorial issues at the expense of independent countries.
After World War I, international relations were determined by the Versailles-Washington system - a number of contracts and agreements in favor of winning countries. Germany was announced by the only guilty of the war and was supposed to pay reparations - payments to other states affected by the war.
She lost part of the territory in Europe and its colonies, should have reduced the army.
Versailles-Washington system ignored the interests of not only Germany, but also by Soviet Russia. This circumstance contributed to the approach of these two countries in the international arena. Germany purchased raw materials in the USSR, food, led on its territory the preparation of military personnel and the test of technology prohibited by the Versailles.
The development of events showed that the economic revival of Germany was beneficial to the winners, otherwise it was impossible to receive reparations. In the summer of 1924, the International Conference in London adopted a Dower Plan, according to which American and British banks provided Germany to restore the economy. Intensifying economically, Germany was not satisfied with an unequal position in the system of international relations. The Locarnas International Conference of 1925 was important in Germany in Germany as a whole in the spirit of the preservation of the Versailles-Washington system. However, Germany refused to guarantee its eastern borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia, considering them unfair. Despite this, next year (1926), Germany was adopted in the League of Nations and received a permanent place in its advice, like other great powers. It was the first step to revise the Versailles-Washington system.
France feared the revengery aspirations of Germany. In 1928, France Foreign Minister Brian nominated the idea of \u200b\u200bsigning an agreement on the refusal of war as a means
national Policy. All the leading states, including the USSR, signed a Bakian-Kellog pact.
The international situation was unstable. In 1925-1926, Anglo-Soviet relations aggravated. The USSR was accused of interfering in the internal affairs of England. The reason was the material assistance provided by the Soviet unions of the English workers during universal strikes. In 1927, the British government broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, annulled a trade agreement.
The global economic crisis that began at the end of 1929 led to the restructuring of international relations. Lost stability of the financial and currency system of capitalist countries, including Germany. In 1929, the Special Committee under the leadership of Jung decided to reduce reparation payments. France and England, having ceased to receive reparations, also stopped paying their US military debts. Taking advantage of this, Germany in 1932 achieved the final abolition of reparations. This led to the cessation of debt payment, despite the resistance of the United States. Thus, the entire system of post-war payments collapsed under the blows of the global economic crisis. In the same 1932, Germany, in principle, was recognized by her equality in the field of weapons.
The first country, which discarded the principles of the Versailles-Washington system and applied the power in the struggle for the new redistribution of the world, became Japan.
She competed with the United States to establish domination over China and in the Pacific Pool. In September 1931, the Japanese troops began the occupation of northeastern China (Manchuria). Having captured all Manchuria, Japan created on the occupied territory the puppet state of Manzhou. When, after long-wires, the League of Nations in his resolution condemned the capture of Manchuria and demanded to return it to China, Japan came out of the League of Nations in March 1933 and began the occupation of a number of other provinces of North China.
The main focus of the Second World War emerged in the center of Europe, in Germany. Here in January 1933 the fascist dictatorship was established. The Fascists of Germany intended any means to cancel the restrictions established in Versailles, to fight for the return of colonies and additional territories for the Germans. Economic difficulties in the country they were explained by the infringement of Germany at the international
arena and disadvantage of territories for the development of the German people. The secret weapons of the country accelerated. In the fall of 1933, Germany left the League of Nations, left the Geneva Conference on Disarmament and was freedom to further violate articles of the Versailles. In March 1935, a universal military service was restored in the country. A year later, German troops were introduced into the Rhine Demilitarized Zone. Thus, military articles of the Versailles and Locarnic Agreements of 1925 were violated. These actions, Germany accompanied the refusal to participate in the creation of a European collective security system, the project of which in the mid-1930s was actively discussed in Europe. All this testified to the preparation of the Hitler's government to unleash the war. And although in January 1934, the German-Polish treaty on friendship and nonsense was signed in Berlin, the Fascists of Germany was scheduled for Poland one of the first victims in the struggle for the redistribution of peace.
In the decor of international tension, many countries were looking for new allies. Attempts to create a collective security system through the conclusion of international treaties on the performance of the united front against the aggressor were made. France, concerned about the enhancement of Germany, began to look for the way to cooperate with the USSR (Russia was the traditional ally of France). The USSR also searched for allies in the West and with the support of France in the fall of 1934 entered the League of Nations. An attempt was made to conclude an Eastern Covenant on mutual assistance in the event of aggression. He was supposed to sign a number of Baltic and Eastern European countries. However, this was not possible due to the opposition of Germany and Poland, who feared the growth of the influence of the USSR in Europe. In May 1935, bilateral Soviet-French and Soviet-Czechoslovak treaties on mutual assistance were signed. They could become an obstacle on the path of Hitler's aggression. But Western circles regarded contracts from the USSR as a maneuver, and not as a long-term strategy, and were not going to fulfill their obligations.
The policy of concern to aggressors led to the 30s to increase the foci of war and international tension.
In the autumn of 1935, the fascist Italy began an aggressive concrete war against Ethiopia (Abyssinian). The Council of the League of Nations recognized Italy by the aggressor and made a decision on the application of economic and financial sanctions to it. But back
laya and weak Ethiopia has become a light prey of the aggressor. In the shortest seaways from Europe to Asia, another node of the military conflict was tied.
In July 1936, a military fascist rebellion broke out in Spain, at the head of which General Franco stood. A long civil war began in the country. The ruling circles of the West offered to adhere to the events in Spain "Non-interference policies". In words, agreeing with this, Germany and Italy supplied weapons and troops to General Franco, while the Legal Republican Government of Spain was subjected under the slogan of "non-interference" of the present blockade. Only the Soviet Union assisted the Spanish Republic to weapons, food, sent volunteers there. "Non-interference policy" contributed to the victory of rebels and establishing Franco's fascist dictatorship in Spain.
Gradually, the aggressors began to converge. In October 1936, the German-Italian Agreement on joint actions in international politics was signed. In November of the same year, Germany and Japan concluded the so-called "Anchikominean Pact". They were obliged to inform each other about the activities of the Comintern and to fight against the "International Communism". In 1937, Italy joined the Antico Minister Pact. The signing of the Covenant strengthened the position of aggressors, contributed to the preparation of the war for the redistribution of peace. The edge of the block was directed not only against the USSR, but also against the USA, Great Britain and France.
The main role in the Union of Agressors played Germany. By 1938, her armed forces grew so much that she was able to switch to the violent crossroads of the Central European map. The policy of territorial seizures was carried out under the slogan of the unification of all Germans as part of a single state. This slogan has already justified itself during a plebiscite on the belonging of the Saaric region. Saaric region 1 5 years has been running the League of Nations. After this period, it departed to Germany in accordance with the results of plebiscite (1935). In March 1938, Hitler's troops, hiding behind the slogan of the unification of the Germans in a single state, invaded Austria and occupied it. A few days later, this country was included in the German Reich. This is an accession (German Anshalus)
it was a violent nature and was an act of a gross violation of the Versailles. The governments of Western countries were limited to the verbal protest and did not support the USSR offer to convene an international conference to organize aggressors.
Such behavior of aggressors has become possible due to the passive, expectant policy of European states and the US neutrality. The leading western policies stated that their main goal is to prevent the war, even if the concessions of the aggressors (the so-called deformation policy). In the US, a law on neutrality was adopted, which forbade the sale of weapons and military materials to the warring parties, without making differences between the aggressor and the victim of the attack.
Impunity encouraged Germany to new captures. She demanded the transfer of Czechoslovakia to her, in whose territory a German national minority lived. To solve this issue in September 1938, the conference of the heads of the Government of Four countries took place in Munich: Germany (Hitler), Italy (Mussolini), England (Chamberlain) and France (Daladye). She entered the story as Munich Credit, or Munich Transaction. On it, Western circles solved the fate of Czechoslovakia. The sudden region was transmitted to Germany. Due to Czechoslovakia, territorial claims were satisfied with the bourgeois landlords of Poland and Hungary. Under the British and France, the Government of Czechoslovakia adopted the Munich Agreement, without contacting the Soviet Union (according to the terms of the Soviet-Czechoslovak agreement, 1935, assistance could be provided only after the request for her and with the participation of France). The Munich transaction was aimed at insulation of the USSR in the international arena and to pushing the Hitler's aggression to the East. By the summer of 1939, an increasingly obvious error in the politician of the appearance of aggressors was becoming. In March 1939, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist as an independent state, was dismantled for individual areas, in one degree or another subordinates of Germany. In April 1939, Hitler announced the termination of the Polish-German Non-Space Treaty. Italy and Germany refused all previously concluded agreements and openly burned the war in Europe. March 23, 1939
Under the influence of these events, the public opinion of England and France has changed in favor of a decisive opposition of aggression. Governments of these countries announced the guarantees of the independence of Poland, Romania, Greece, joined negotiations from the USSR on the possibility of cooperation. The position of the USSR in the international arena was extremely important. With the USSR Union with England and France, a powerful block against the aggressor would be created. Having opposed them together with Germany, the USSR would create a critical, hopeless situation for them, would facilitate the actions of Germany in the West. Even the neutrality of the USSR could be different and in different ways to influence the development of events. The USSR suggested that England and France cooperation in the fight against aggressors. However, the neglected negotiations revealed a large mutual distrust, began to delay. Western partner fluctuations led to the fact that the Soviet leadership parallel to rapprochement with Germany so as not to be in isolation. On August 12, 1939, the negotiations of Anglo-Franco-Soviet military missions began in Moscow. But on August 17, they were suspended, and Soviet-German negotiations at the level of foreign ministers were intensified. On August 23, 1939, the Soviet-German Treaty was signed (Molotov - Ribbentrop Covenant) about non-fire. It consisted of the main text and secret addition - a protocol in which the spheres of the influence and interests of Germany and the USSR were distributed. The sphere of interests of the Soviet Union includes the Baltic Republic, Romania (claimed the claims of the USSR on Bessarabia). The boundaries of the influence of the USSR and Germany were installed in Poland along the rivers of Nariav, Vistula and San (Western Ukraine and Western Belarus went out to the USSR). It was not just a contract, but a contract of two dictatorships on the future separation of territories. He accelerated the unleashing of World War II, providing Germany's neutrality of the USSR.
Thus, the contradictions between European states and their mutual mistrust prevented the creation of a system of collective security. Fascist aggressors got the opportunity to unleash the war for the redistribution of peace.
One of the most important consequences of the global economic crisis of 1929--1933. There was an aggravation of international contradictions. In the system of the world, created by the winners after the First World War, there were deep cracks. The defeated countries sought to revenge and prevail over their competitors.
At the beginning of the 30s. The contradictions between Germany, Italy, Japan, on the one hand, the United Kingdom, France, and the United States on the other hand, were noticeably aggravated. The basis of the foreign policy of fascist and militarist states was aggression. They sought to destroy the USSR and to the redistribution of the world. Therefore, the main task of aggressors was preparing and the unleashing of the New World War in order to approve their dominance.
The ruling circles of Great Britain, France and the United States essentially pushed the aggressors to attack the USSR, while counting on mutual exhaustion in both parties. In the soil of anti-communism, an aggressive foreign policy course of the fascist and militarist states was carried out and the policy of encouraging aggression, which the Western powers adhered.
Armed struggle for the new redistribution of the world of the first start of Japan. In September 1931, the Japanese troops began military actions and had occupied Manchuria for three months. The Gomindan Government of China did not resist the aggressor. Although the Japanese invasion of Northeast China suffered the interests of the Western powers, the US government, the United Kingdom and France abstained from countering aggression. They expected Japan soon will attack the USSR. Having captured all Manchuria, Japan created on the occupied territory the puppet state of Manzhou. Only in February 1933, after a long wire, the League of Nations adopted a resolution that condemned the capture of Manchuria and demanded it to return to China. The response to this measure was the yield of Japan from the League of Nations in March 1933 and preparation for new seizures. At the same time, the occupied territories turned into a bridgehead for war against the USSR and China. In connection with the emergence of this focus of war, the Soviet Union has taken measures to strengthen its defense.
After the arrival of the Nazis to power, Germany turned into the main focus of the New World War. Hitler's fascism rushed to world domination, putting the first to their task to enslave Europe. Hitler's plans envisaged the conquest of the "living space" in the East - the organization of a military campaign against the USSR in order to destroy the Soviet state under the slogan of eating Europe from the "hazard of Bolshevism". The intentions of the German fascists were sympathetic to the circles of the United States, Great Britain and France, which were calculated to use Germany as a shock force for the fight against the USSR. Perennial communications of the American and British financial and industrial magnates with German monopolies served as the economic basis of the policy of "Decience" of Germany.
In October 1933, Germany demonstratively left the League of Nations, unleashing his hands to the arms race and aggression. The Nazis, in turn, took steps to get the western powers on the soil of the anti-Soviet conviction. First of all, they sought to revise the articles of the Versailles.
Plebisitis in the Saaric region, which was under the course of 15 years under the control of the League of Nations, led to the fact that on March 1, 1935 Saar moved to Germany, which paid compensation for France for coal mines.
Unilaterally violating military articles of the Versailles Agreement, Hitler introduced in March 1935 by the Universal Military Meament. Germany has begun to create an army and aviation. The English-German maritime agreement opened the Germans to an increase in the tona of the navy and the construction of submarines. In March 1936, Europe was before the exercise german troops Rhine Demilitarized zone. Hitler was risky, realizing that this step, threatening the safety of France, can cause armed resistance on its part. However, the French government was inactive, and Hitler achieved its plans. As a result, the Versailles system of peaceful treaties suffered a complete collapse.
The Soviet Union was actually the only state that consistently made energetic efforts to curb the aggressors, block the path of war. Great importance The USSR attached to the struggle for disarmament. By participating in the work of the International Conference on Disarmament, the Soviet Union proposed to implement the principle of universal and complete disarmament. But the Western powers rejected the Soviet proposal. Evidence of the increased international authority of the USSR was the entry of the Soviet Union to the League of Nations in September 1934 at the invitation of 31 states. The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a collective security system in Europe, which provided for the conclusion of a treaty on mutual protection against aggression by the collective efforts of all interested European states, acquired great popularity. The most far-sighted French politicians concerned about the growth of military threat from Germany, supported the USSR offer. However, the conclusion of the contract was broken.
At the initiative of the USSR in May 1935, the Soviet-French and Soviet-Czechoslovak Covenants on mutual assistance against aggression were signed. They envisaged each other immediate assistance and support in the event of an attack on one of the parties. At the insistence of Czechoslovakia's governments in the Soviet-Czechoslovak Pact, a reservation was included that the obligation of mutual assistance will come into force, provided that France comes to helping the victim of aggression. This weakened the effectiveness of the contract. The governments of France and Czechoslovakia, who signed agreements from the USSR under pressure from the masses, acted in insincere. Foreign Minister France Laval, striving for a collusion with Germany, made it possible to understand the Nazis that for the sake of agreement with them he is ready to abandon the Covenant with the Soviet Union. Treaties of the Soviet Union with France and Czechoslovakia could serve as the basis of the collective security system in Europe. However, the ruling circles of the Western powers did not want to create it.
The redistribution of the world began with "Small Wars". Together with Germany and Japan, aggressive politics conducted the fascist Italy, which took the course to create a colonial empire in Africa and in the pool Mediterranean Sea. The closest goal of the Italian fascists put the seizure of Ethiopia, which had large raw material wealth and an important strategic position. In October 1935, the well-armed Italian army invaded Ethiopia. Fascist aggressors brutally straightened with warriors and civilians, burned and destroyed cities and villages. Against the population used poisoning substances. In May 1936, the Italian troops occupied the capital of the country Addis Ababa. Ethiopia was declared the colony of Italy. Armed aggression against Ethiopia has become possible as a result of indulgence from the Western powers. The French government, for example, has entered a straight, transaction with Italy. For the refusal of aggressive actions in Equatorial Africawhere the influence of France prevailed, Mussolini received freedom of hands in Ethiopia. Under pressure from the international community, the League of Nations was forced to declare Italy by the aggressor and introduce restrictions on trade with it. But these measures have not changed the provisions, since Italy has increased trade in countries that did not participate in sanctions, such as the United States. The USSR government sought the application of the Liga of Nations collective sanctions against Italy, including the termination of oil supplies and the closure of the Suez Canal for Italian courts. But in this struggle, the Soviet Union was alone.
Italian-German intervention in Spain became a new step in the way of unleashing World War II. Germany and Italy, who helped in the organization of the conspiracy, wanted to disrupt the development of the Spanish revolution, defeat the republic and establish the fascist regime in Spain. After the conclusion of a number of European states on non-interference in Spanish affairs in London, a non-intervention committee was created in London, which was not endowed with control functions.
If all the participating States strictly followed the concluded agreement, the fate of the rebel would be solved in a short time. But under the cover of this agreement, Germany, Italy and Portugal, with obvious connivance from Great Britain, France and the United States carried out interference in Spanish events.
Spain has become an important source of supply of aggressor states by various raw materials and food. In addition, Wehrmacht used the Spanish territory as a landfill for testing its aviation and tanks and acquiring common combat experience. Italian-German intervention suffered national Interests Great Britain and France. The Pyrenean Peninsula was considered by Germany and Italy as a favorable strategic bridgehead for warfare against Western powers.
The turning of Spain in the allied fascist states created a direct threat to sea communications that bind England and France with their colonial possessions. Especially serious consequences in the event of the defeat of the Republicans in Spain could have experienced France, as it would be surrounded by fascist states. However, the reactionary circles of England and France feared that the successes of republican Spain would contribute to the rise of the revolutionary-democratic movement in Western Europe. The largest monopolies of Western powers, as well as German industrial concerns, had significant investments in Spain and were interested in the victory of Franco. In 1938, the Non-accurative Committee decided to withdraw all foreign volunteers from Spain. However, this decision was touched only by international brigades and did not affect the regular Italian-German military units.
The official recognition of the Governments of England and France rebellious General Franco served as a signal for the speech of conspirators, who defeated the Spanish republic to the fatal blow in the back. They handed over Madrid's fascists. Government. The USSR joined the agreement on non-interference, believing that his impeccable observance by all participants would create barriers to the intervention. But the London Non-Eastern Committee turned out to be unable to counteract numerous violations of the agreement. Therefore, the Soviet government in October 1936 stated that it could not consider himself to be connected with this document more than any other government. The USSR provided the Spanish people to considerable support in his heroic struggle against fascism. But the strengthening of the blockade of the Republic more and more difficult to provide effective assistance to Spain
The military-political cooperation of Germany and Italy during the intervention in Spain accelerated the formation of the block of fascist states. In October 1936, a German-Italian agreement was signed on joint actions in the main issues of international policies and the delimitation of spheres of influence in the Central and Southeast Eastern Europe. There was a rapprochement of Germany and Japan. In November 1936, Germany and Japan concluded the so-called "Anti-Comintern Pack", to which Italy joined in a year. The states of the fascist-militarist bloc have pledged to inform each other about the activities of the Comintern and jointly fight against the "International Communism". Secret articles of this Covena envisaged joint measures to combat the Soviet Union.
In fact, the fascist-militaristic coalition arose to prepare and unleash the war for the redistribution of peace. The edge of the block was directed not only against the USSR, but also against the USA, Great Britain and France. After the conclusion of the "Anti-Comintern Covenant", the aggressiveness of fascist states increased even more. In July - August 1937, Japan invaded the North and Central China and began a wide offensive in the depths of the country. Japan's actions threatened the interests of the United States and England in China. But their governments fell on the path of connivance aggression and did not take any measures to restore the world. Washington and London were calculated that Japan would soon attack the Soviet Union. US monopolies supplied to Japanese militarists in large quantities of metal, machines, petroleum products.
New acts of aggression fascist states and in Europe. The first of these was the "accession" of Austria to Germany (Anchlus), conducted under the slogan of the unification of all land inhabited by the Germans. Before you decide on this step, Hitler enlisted with the support of the British government, at the head of which was a supporter of "Decience" Germany N. Chamberlain. The ruling circles of England, who considered Germany "Bastion of the West against Bolshevism", provided it with freedom of action in Central and Eastern Europe. In March 1938, the German fascist troops entered Austria without having any resistance. Austria was part of the German "Reich".
The Soviet Union strongly condemned the aggressive actions of Germany and proposed to convene an international conference for organizing collective protection of the independence of those countries that threatened aggression. But the Western powers, who became the path of transactions with Hitler, and this time rejected the USSR offer.
The impunity of aggression encouraged Germany to new captures. Hitler's eyes were now addressed to Czechoslovakia, which occupied a favorable position in the center of Europe and had a developed industry. The pretext for the capture of the country was the German requirement for Czechoslovakia to abandon sovereignty.
