Foreign Ministry Foreign Ministers. Secret diplomacy of the Kremlin Mlechin Leonid Mikhailovich

People's Commissar and his deputies

Not only the People's Commissaria itself, but also a collegium of the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, consisting of five people, argued Politburo, department heads - the CCC. The board of the NKID consisted of the People's Commissar, his first deputy Nikolai Krestinsky (former secretary of the Central Committee, who left the party cases due to the proximity to Trotsky), the second deputy lion of Karakhan, a beautiful and friendly man who married a famous ballerina, and Boris Stomonakova, a long-time Familiar Litvinova.

Chicherin considered Karakhan "very subtle, brilliant, talented politician", and Stomonakova disliked: "Dry formalist, without flexibility, without political alike, a dick, unpleasant, spraying relationship." Litvinov, on the contrary, distinguished Stomonakov, and Carakhan could not stand. Stomonakova wanted to send to Berlin, but he refused and eventually became the deputy addict. The position of the fifth member of the NKID board remained blank.

Litvinov, becoming a commander, continued to oversee the 3rd department - close to him Anglo-Saxon and Romanesque countries. The 2nd West Department - Central Europe and Scandinavia - led the Krestinsky. The drugs were dry and cut, possibly imitating Stalin style. But Litvinov could argue. Discussions in People's Commissaria ceased only with the arrival of Molotov.

Krestinsky remained accessible and simple. Nikolai Nikolayevich worked in Narkomointello until the spring of 1937, when he was suddenly transferred to the addict of justice and almost immediately arrested. He was made by one of the main defendants in the process in the case of the "Anti-Soviet Rospectrocyst Block" in March 1938.

In May 1933, the Deputy Complex for Far Eastern Countries (Japan, China, Mongolia) appointed Grigory Yakovlevich Sokolnikov, who played an important role in the Civil War, then became the People's Commissar and Candidate of Politburo. He was also considered close to the Trotsky man, and in 1929 he was sent by a police station to England. In the autumn of 1932, Sokolniki was asked to go home. He was appointed in the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs. For some time he was engaged in relations with Mongolia, and then he became a deputy addict, but not for a long time. Relations with Litvinov did not work out, in 1934 the number of deposits in the addict was reduced, and Sokolnikov was transferred to the first deputy in the People's Commissariat of the Forest Industry. In 1936 he was arrested, sentenced to ten years in prison. He was killed in prison.

Lev Mikhailovich Karakhan remained deputy addict in Middle East countries (Afghanistan, Persia, Turkey, Arabian countries). Carakhan, close to the previous addict - Chicherin, did not have a relationship with Litvinov. Maxim Maksimovich his zaza disliked, so the Karakhan stopped to replace the head of the department during the commanders of the People's Commissar.

In May 1934, from the post of the second deputy addict, Lev Mikhailovich was sent to the ambassador to Turkey. Karahahan missed Ankara, asked for more active work. On December 31, 1936, he wrote to the Moldovar of Defense Voroshilov, with whom he was on "You", complaining that he was oppressed by his current state that he had no prospects for NKID and he would have left for another job: "I all return to the thoughts to the NKVD. There I could be useful. There is a lot of work on foreign affairs, and I could be a good History History. "

It is striking that even the highest officials then so poorly focused in what is happening. In the NKVD Karakhan really became interested. But with the other purpose. He was withdrawn to Moscow only to arrest and shoot ...

In 1934, the Board in all drug addicts, including the NKID, was eliminated. In Chicherina, these disputes, members of the board, the same Litvinov, were accounted for their meetings, allowed themselves to disagree with the People's Commissar, to write their position in the Central Committee. But Stalin decided that the college is an administrative ultray. Politburo made a decision: "In the interests of bringing to the end of the principle of uniqueness in the management of addicts to consider it expedient to eliminate the teams of drug addicts, leaving the addicts of the drug addicts and no more than two deposits."

Instead of four deputies, Litvinov left two - Captain (first deputy) and Stomonakov (second). It strengthened his power inside the People's Commissariat. Moreover, in the early 1934, Litvinova elected a member of the Central Committee.

Stromonakov led the 1st West Department (relations with Poland and Baltic). It was the main department, because relations with Poland remained defining for the then soviet leadership, and Boris Stomonakov Taris trusted more than others. When mass repressions began in the addict, Litvinov had made efforts to save Stomonakov, who at the time of his arrest tried to shoot and got into the prison hospital. Litvinov asked for a reception to Stalin. Understanding what risks, firmly said:

I pass for Stomonakov.

Stalin replied:

Comrade Litvinov, you can only vouch for yourself.

Stromonakov was destroyed. From all the leadership of the People's Commissariat, only Maxim Maksimovich himself survived ...

The staff at first was a small - himself, a police station, adviser, first secretary, military attache, Consul General. The technical staff is the technical staff - the secretaries of the consulate, the ravine, the encrypter, the protection of the OGPU (then the NKVD).

Moscow watched the Soviet diplomats lived modestly. In 1926, the Politburo meeting recorded:

"one. Polippers and Torgpredas in Germany, Latvia and Estonia declare a rigorous reprimand for admitted excesses and raised on the day of the 9th anniversary of the revolution, compromising our republic in the eyes of workers.

2. To entrust the NK RCI to collect an exhaustive material in this case and submit a draft measures about the strict regulation of the costs of all seats and trades, based on the need to reduce them twice. "

Muza Vasilyevna Kanievel, Fyodor Raskolnikov's wife, who was a police station in Afghanistan, Estonia, Denmark, Bulgaria, left memories of the ambassading life. When they and her husband came to Moscow on vacation and sincerely said that they were tired of living away from their homeland, one of his colleagues answered in a whisper:

Do not rush, mushch, return from abroad. Here is hellish life.

Already then, police officers tried to hay the country of stay and foreign life in general. They knew that among the listeners would be a secret state security officer, which vigilantly follows the moral state of the unit of the unit. If the Soviet diplomat liked the bourgeois reality and he did not know how to hide it, he was quickly returned to his homeland. And already many wanted to work abroad - it was hungry and scarily at home.

Some diplomats generally preferred not to return. Only in one year, from the autumn of 1928 to autumn 1929, seventy-two employees of the progress preparation refused to return to the Soviet Union. The selection for progress has become even more tougher - they did not let those who have relatives from the border, "unpoletur origin" or deviation from the party line.

In 1929, the problem was discussed at the meeting of the Politburo. "On the riots identified in Soviet long-standings" reported the old Bolshevik Boris Anisimovich Roizenman, a member of the Presidium of the Central Control Commission and a member of the College of People's Commissariat of Workers' and Peasant Control. He was engaged in pass-driven and checking the work of climbing.

Decided:

"A) to instruct the People's Commissariat of the Workers' and Peasant Inspectorate to submit to the Politburo specific proposals in all matters arising from the report of TOV. Rosizenman (list of persons spicent, reducing states, etc.), as well as on the following issues that arose in connection with his report:

1) the destruction of secret funds in all overseas floors,

2) the maximum reduction of existing representative offices of various organizations,

3) preventing the formation of new representative offices without special permission and registering them in the NC RCI.

b) Create a Commission to study the reasons that cause the decomposition of our employees abroad and refuses to return to the USSR. "

In the twenties, the diplomatic corps consisted of old Bolsheviks, people educated, who were abroad who knew the languages. In the thirties, the "promoters" began to send abroad, as they said, that is, mobilized to the diplomatic work of parties, completely unprepared and not "spoiled" knowledge of foreign languages. Communication with foreigners was allowed only to diplomats. The rest is, that is, the technical and administrative apparatus of the boarding range - they should have been cooked in their own juice. It gave rise to a small team of conflicts worse than in a close communal apartment. They quarreled, wrote to each other donos offshoot and directly to Moscow. All those who left the border passed the party tickets, but half a venue passed the packet assemblies, they could criticize the police station, informing their opinion in the office of the Central Committee.

They tried abroad with no special need to release. In 1930, Politburo decided:

"one. Temporarily, to continue to a special decree of the Central Committee: prohibit business trips abroad of theaters, sports teams, delegates to exhibitions, writers, musicians, etc., and also, as a rule, delegates to scientific congresses. Exceptions to allow only in each individual case according to a special decree of the Central Committee.

2. Reduce the plans of departments for foreign business trips, with the exception of travelers to study, especially hard to cut business trips to operations that can be carried out by the bracket apparatus.

3. In order to reduce the timing of travel, recognize the necessary issuance of foreign passports for a limited time limit (3-6 months).

4. In order to increase the responsibility of the Offices to prohibit Commissions of the Central Committee on the departure to consider business trips, not approved by the Commissar (in industry - personally approved by the Chairmen of the Associations and authorized by the Vice-Chairman of the EMD). At the same time, the responsibility for the personal selection of the community to be entrusted to one of the members of the CC approval of the Central Committee.

5. Commissions of the Central Committee on the departures together with the foreign exchange department of the People's Commissariat of Finance to develop and on decades to submit to the statement of the Central Committee the subsistence minimum for each country, where business trips are given, as well as the cost (its foreign exchange part). The size of the issuance of the currency for each trip to argue in the Commission on the exit. It is categorically prohibited both agencies and trading under the fear of criminal responsibility to produce any additional issuance of currency commander.

6. In the case of early fulfillment of tasks or discrediting behavior of commoded representatives of the Workers' and Peasant Inspectorate, they inform himself a decree and Torgpreda for subcomarding to the Soviet Union.

7. Provide the right to parlets at the proposal of representatives of the RKK in 24 hours to submit to Moscow to Moscow people in foreign business trips. "

The plenules themselves allowed themselves to object to the addict and challenge his instructions. Generally behaved quite independently. The People's Commissariat suggested the discipline through the resolutions of the Politburo. Let's say, in 1926 they adopted such a decision:

"On the absence of police workers

b) Due to the NKID statement that in the Paris Installation at the same time (without the permission of the NKID) went on vacation TT. Rakovsky and Davtyan, to propose a NKID to immediately take measures to ensure that the plenipotentiary (or adviser) is caused by its work in Paris.

c) To oblige NKID to take measures to continue questions about the absences (about vacations, departures to Moscow, etc.) of the main workers of the Installations were made with the permission of NKID, and in the right cases and the Central Committee.

d) send this ruling to all poll authorities ... "

Before the start of mass repression, the diplomatic service, as, however, and all life in the country has not yet established. Much solved personal relationships and connections in the central apparatus. In the twenties (very broad) and even at the beginning of the thirties, some elements - former major party workers - directly turned to members of the Politburo, with which they had personal relationships, and even to Stalin himself. Litvinova's party status was higher than Chicherina, but he did not belong to the top, so recent party workers did not feel his subordinates. Although Litvinov, like his successors, demanded that all appeals went to the top through the addict.

Polipult in Czechoslovakia Alexander Yakovlevich Arosis complained to Stalin: "The agency does not want a plenipotentiary to be able to directly demolish with the Politburo or its members. The agency wants his officials in all posts. " Arosis did not miss the case to note that Litvinov is close to the right, and the Deputy House of the Krestinsky - and at all Trotskist. Litvinov could not do anything, because Arosis had once studied with Molotov, and with Voroshilov served the link.

Stalin did not object when the plenipotes turned to it directly. Soviet representatives in the largest countries he took in his Kremlin. This allowed to receive additional information, including relationships within the People's Commissariat, although there is no self-identity diplomats secretary General did not allow. The main thing in Staline diplomacy was a conscious self-limitation: everyone should do what he is entrusted with, accurately and literally perform the instructions of the manual.

Ambassador in Sweden Alexander Mikhailovna Kollondtai recorded a diary in 1933 after a meeting with Stalin: "In our work, it is not necessary to be initiative. It is necessary to "hold tasks."

On December 22, 1933, Litvinov complained to Stalin regarding personnel appointments in the US station in the United States, because of which he broke up with a police station Alexander Trojanovsky: "You are repeatedly (and the other day) I reproached me that I do not use my authority addict in my relationship With plentyings. You are likely to agree that there may not be this authority from the Commissar, when with his conflict with a police station in the case in which he could not understand anything, the Central Committee solves the question in his favor ... "

Becoming the Commissar, Litvinov updated the composition of ambassadors, former politicians replaced the first professional diplomats. The selection of diplomatic personnel was engaged in the organizational and distribution department of the Central Committee, in which there was an overseas sector. The diplomatic work was translated from the party, they took people from production. They often lacked elementary training. In 1934, the Politburo approved the draft resolution of the Soviet University on the transfer from the Reserve Fund at the disposal of the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs necessary for the organization of the Institute of Diplomatic and Consular Workers. His listeners also resolved the Politburo decision from calling to the army and released at the time of study from military fees.

Directly diplomats were engaged in the commission on verifying the comrades who returned to the USSR from foreign work. It existed within the apparatus of the party inquisition - the Central Control Commission.

On August 11, 1937, Georgy Maximilianovich Malenkov, an upward party star, headed by the department of the Central Committee of the Central Committee, reported Stalin: "On your instructions, fifty workers were selected for People's Commissaria. All these workers are tested in the Orgraspredde of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b), as well as through the NKVD. I took each of the selected comrades, after which I got acquainted with them. Litvinov. "

In 1938, introduced a new rule: all working abroad should come on vacation to their homeland so that Chekists could look at them.

In solving, the Politburo recorded:

"one. Establish that employees of foreign institutions of the USSR are obliged to conduct their vacation in the Soviet Union.

2. Suggest addicts to pay for the fare of employees of foreign institutions of the USSR coming on vacation to the Soviet Union. "

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Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (Party Pseudonym, the real name - Scriabin) was born on February 25 (March 9) of 1890 in Sloboda Kukarka Cukaric County Vyatka province (now the city of Soviet Kirov region) in the family of Mikhail Prokhorovich Scriabin, the clerk of the merchant merchant Jakova Nichubatikov.

Children's years V. M. Molotov took place in Vyatka and in Nolinsk. In 1902-1908, he studied in the 1st Kazan Real School. On the wave of the events of 1905, he joined the revolutionary movement, in 1906 he joined the RSDLP. In April 1909, he was first arrested and exiled to the Vologda province.

Substituting a link, in 1911, V. M. Molotov arrived in St. Petersburg, passed the external exams for the real school and entered the economic department of the Polytechnic Institute. From 1912, he collaborated in the Bolshevik newspaper "Star", then became the secretary of the editorial board of the Pravda newspaper, a member of the St. Petersburg Committee of the RSDLP. During the preparation of the Pravda publication, I became acquainted with I. V. Stalin.

After the arrest of the RSDRP faction in the IV State Duma in 1914 was hiding under the name of Molotov. From the fall of 1914 he worked in Moscow over the recreation of the defeated guards of partorganization. In 1915, V. M. Molotov was arrested and exiled for three years to Irkutsk province. In 1916, the link fled, lived on an illegal position.

The February Revolution of 1917 V. M. Molotov met in Petrograd. He was a delegate of the VII (April) All-Russian Conference of the RSDLP (b) (April 24-29, 1917), a delegate of the VI Congress of the RSDDP (b) from the Petrograd organization. He was part of the Russian Bureau of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (B), the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Council and the Military Revolutionary Committee, who supervised the overall government in October 1917.

After the establishment of the Soviet government, V. M. Molotov was in governing party work. In 1919, he was the chairman of the Nizhny Novgorod Gubspolkom, later became the secretary of the Donetsk Spoon of RCP (b). In 1920 he was elected secretary of the Central Committee of the CP (b) of Ukraine.

In 1921-1930, V. M. Molotov held the position of Secretary of the Central Committee of the WCP (b). From 1921 he was a candidate for the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Party, in 1926 he became part of the Politburo. Actively participated in the fight against the internal partare opposition, was summarized in the number of close associates I. V. Stalin.

In 1930-1941, V. M. Molotov headed the USSR SNK, at the same time from May 1939 he was the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the USSR. With his name, a whole epoch is connected in Soviet foreign policy. The signature of V. M. Molotova stands under the negotiation agreement with Hitler Germany dated August 23, 1939 (the so-called "Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact"), the estimates of which were and remain ambiguous.

V. M. Molotova fell to the lot soviet people About the attack nazi Germany On the USSR on June 22, 1941. They told them then words: "Our business is right. The enemy will be broken. The victory will be behind us, "the history of the Great Patriotic War, 1941-1945, entered the history of the Great Patriotic War.

It was Molotov that informed the Soviet people about the attack of Nazi Germany

In the war years, V. M. Molotov held posts of the First Deputy Chairman of the USSR SCA, Deputy Chairman of the State Committee for the USSR Defense. In 1943, he was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor. V. M. Molotov took the most active participation in the organization and holding of Tehran (1943), Crimean (1945) and Potsdam (1945) conferences of the heads of government of the three allied powers - the USSR, the USA and the UK, on \u200b\u200bwhich the main parameters of the post-war device of Europe were identified.

V. M. Molotov remained as the head of the NKID (since 1946, the USSR Foreign Ministry) until 1949, again headed the ministry in 1953-1957. From 1941 and until 1957, he simultaneously held the position of First Deputy Chairman of the SNK (since 1946 - Council of Ministers) of the USSR.

In the June Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU 1957, V. M. Molotov spoke out against N. S. Khrushchev, joining his opponents, which were convicted as an "anti-party group". Together with its other members, he was derived from the part of the party's governing bodies and was removed from all state posts.

In 1957-1960, V. M. Molotov was the Ambassador of the USSR in Mongolian People's RepublicIn 1960-1962, the Soviet Representation was headed in the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna. In 1962, he was withdrawn from Vienna and excluded from the CPSU. By order of the USSR Foreign Ministry of September 12, 1963, V. M. Molotov was released from work in the Ministry in connection with retirement.

In 1984, with the sanctions, K. U. Chernenko V. M. Molotov was restored to the CPSU with the preservation of party length.

V. M. Molotov died in Moscow on November 8, 1986 and was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery.

Andrei Yanarievich Vyshinsky, the descendant of the ancient Polish nobleman, the former Menshevik, who signed the order about the arrest of Lenin seemingly, was doomed to get into the millstone system. Surprisingly, instead, he himself came to power, taking posts: the prosecutor of the USSR, the prosecutor of the RSFSR, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, the rector of Moscow State University.

In many ways, he was obliged by these his personal qualities, because even his opponents often celebrate deep education and outstanding speakers. It is for this reason that the lecture, and the court speeches of the Vyshinsky always attracted the attention of not only the professional legal community, but also the entire population. His performance also noted. Already as the Minister of Foreign Affairs, he worked from 11 am to 4-5 am the next day.

That is what contributed to his contribution to legal science. At one time, his works on criminalistics, criminal proceedings, state and law theory, international law were considered classical. Yes, and now in the foundation of modern Russian jurisprudence lies by A. Ya. Vyshinsky, the concept of sectoral division of the system of law.

The post of Minister Vyshinsky worked from 11 am to 4-5 am the next day

But nevertheless, in the history of A. Ya. Vyshinsky entered as the "chief Soviet prosecutor" in the processes of the 1930s. For this reason, his name is almost always associated with the Great Terror period. Moscow processes undoubtedly did not comply with the principles of a fair court. Based on indirect evidence, innocent were sentenced to execution or long-term detention.

As the "Inquisitor", it was characterized by an extrajudicial form of penalties, in which he participated - the so-called "deuce", officially - the Commission of the NKVD of the USSR and the Prosecutor of the USSR. The accused in this case were devoid of even a formal trial.

However, let me quote the Vyshinsky himself: "It would be a big mistake to see in the indictment of the prosecutor's office the main content. The main task of the prosecutor's office is to be a guide and guarding legality. "

At the post of prosecutor of the USSR, the main task was the reform of the prosecutor's and investigative apparatus. It was necessary to cope with the following problems: the low formation of prosecutors and investigators, a shortage of personnel, bureaucracy, negligence. As a result, it was formed unique system Overview of the observance of legality, which prosecutor's office and remains currently.

The orientation of the Action of the Vyshinsky was even human rights character, as far as possible in conditions of totalitarian reality. For example, in January 1936, they were initiated by the revision of cases against collective farmers and representatives of rural authorities, convicted of embezzlement in the early 1930s. Tens of thousands of them came free.

Less known activities aimed at supporting the Soviet Protection. In numerous performances and works, he defended independence and procedural powers of lawyers, often criticizing his colleagues for disregarding the side of protection. However, the declared ideals were not implemented in practice, if we recall, for example, "Troika", which were the opposite of the competing process.

Diplomatic career A. Ya. Vyshinsky is not less interest. IN last years Life he held the post of Permanent Representative of the USSR for the UN. In his speeches, he expressed an authoritative opinion in many areas of international politics and international law. His speech is known about the adoption of the World Declaration of Human Rights - Vyshinsky foresaw problems with the implementation of proclaimed rights, which are only now seen in the scientific and professional community.

The identity of Andrei Yanarievich Vyshinsky is ambiguous. On the one hand, participation in punitive justice. On the other hand, scientific and professional achievements, strong personal qualities, the desire to achieve the ideal of "socialist legality". It is they who make even the most fierce enemy of the Vyshinsky recognize in it that carrier of higher values \u200b\u200bis "a man of their case."

It can be concluded that it is possible to be in conditions of totalitarianism. This is confirmed by A. Ya. Vyshinsky.

Born in the family of working railway workshops. After moving the family to Tashkent, he first studied in the gymnasium later in high school.

In 1926 graduated legal faculty Moscow state University M. V. Lomonosov and the Agrarian Faculty of the Institute of Red Professors.

Since 1926 - in the judicial bodies, in 1926-1928 he worked as a prosecutor in Yakutia. Since 1929 - on scientific work. In 1933-1935, he worked in the political waste of one of the Siberian state farms. After the publication of a number of noticeable articles was invited to the Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Since 1935 - in the office of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) (department of science). According to Leonid Mlechin, at one of the meetings on Science Schipilov "allowed himself to argue Stalin." Stalin offered him to go to the oppatinate, but Shepilov stood on his own, as a result of which he was expelled from the Central Committee and seven months spent without work.

Since 1938 - Scientific Secretary of the Institute of Economics of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

In the early days of the war, the volunteer went to the front as part of the Moscow militia, although he had a "reservation", as a professor, and the opportunity to go to Kazakhstan by the director of the Institute of Economics. From 1941 to 1946 - in Soviet army. He passed the way from the ordinary to Major General, the head of the political waste of the 4th Guards Army.

In 1956, Khrushchev achieved Molotov's shift from the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, putting his companion of Shepilov in his place. On June 2, 1956, the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR Shepilov was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, changing Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov in this post.

In June 1956, the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs for the first time in history made a tour of the Middle East, visiting Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, as well as Greece. During the negotiations in Egypt, with President Nasser in June 1956, he gave the secret consent of the USSR to sponsor the construction of the Asuan dam. At the same time, Shepilov, by the nature of his previous activity, not being an international professional, was impressed by the truly "pharaoh" reception, which the then president of Egypt Nasser arranged to him, and upon returning to Moscow managed to convince Khrushcheva in forcing the establishment of relations with Arab countries of the Middle East Counters to normalize relations with Israel. At the same time, it should be noted that during World War II, almost the entire political elite of the countries of the Middle East cooperated with Hitler's Germany, and Nasser himself and his brothers were then studied in Germany higher military schools.

Represented the position of the USSR by the Suez crisis and uprising in Hungary in 1956. He headed the Soviet delegation at the London Conference on the Suez Channel.

He contributed to the normalization of Soviet-Japanese relations: in October 1956, a joint declaration with Japan was signed, stopping the state of war. The USSR and Japan exchanged ambassadors.

In his speech at the XX Congress, the CPSU called for the violent export of socialism outside the USSR. At the same time, he participated in the preparation of the report of Khrushchev "On the cult of personality and its consequences", but the prepared version of the report was substantially changed.

Shepilov called on the violent export of socialism outside the USSR

When Malenkov, Molotov and Kaganovich in June 1957 tried to shift Khrushchev at a meeting of the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee, presenting him a whole list of accusations, Schipilov suddenly began to criticize Khrushchev for the establishment of his own "cult of personality", although the named group was never included. As a result of the defeat of the Molotova grouping, Malenkov, Kaganovich on June 22, 1957, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU was born the wording "Anti-Party group of Molotov, Malenkov, Kaganovich and joined Shapilov to them."

There is also a different, less literary and spectacular explanation of the sources of formulation using the word "joined": a group that would consist of eight participants, it was embarrassing to be called a "broken anti-party group", as it turned out to be a clear majority, and it would be obvious even for Readers "Pravda". To be called "Raskolniki Fractions", members of the group should have been no more than seven; Shepilov was the eighth.

There is a reasonable assumption that, unlike the seven members of the Anti-Partisian Group, members of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Schipilov was defined as "joined", since, as a candidate for the members of the Presidium, did not have a decisive vote.

Shepilov was released from all party and government posts. From 1957 - Director, since 1959 - Deputy Director of the Institute of Economics of the Announcement of the Kyrgyz SSR, in 1960-1982 - archeographer, then the Senior Archeographer in the main archival department at the USSR Council.

Since the cliché "And Shipilov, who joined them" was actively disagreeed in the press, a joke was appeared: "The longest surname - Iprimknyzpilov"; When the half-liter bottle of vodka was divided "on three", the fourth drinking calorie was called "Shipilov", etc. Thanks to this phrase, millions of Soviet citizens learned the name of the party functionar. Schiplov's own memories are polemicly entitled "Incompresented"; They are sharply critical in relation to Khrushchev.

Shepilov himself, according to memories, considered the case fabricated. He was excluded from the party in 1962, restored in 1976, and in 1991 he was restored at the USSR Academy of Sciences. Since 1982 - on pensions.

Of all the Russian and Soviet ministers of foreign affairs, only one Andrei Andreevich Gromyko served in this post legendary time - twenty-eight years. His name was well known not only in the Soviet Union, but also far beyond. His famous for the whole world was made by the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR.

The diplomatic fate of A. A. Gromyko developed in such a way that during without a small half a century he was in the center of world politics, the respect of even his political opponents decreased. In diplomatic circles, he was called the "Patriarch of Diplomacy", "the most informed minister of foreign affairs in the world." His legacy, despite the fact that the Soviet era remained far behind, and today is relevant.

A. A. Gromyko was born on July 5, 1909 in the village of the old rods of the Vetkovsky district of the Gomel region. In 1932 he graduated from the Economic Institute, in 1936 - graduate school of the Economics of Agriculture, Doctor of Economics (since 1956). In 1939 transferred to the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs (NKID) of the USSR. By this time, as a result of repression, almost all the leadership frames of Soviet diplomacy were destroyed, and Gromyko began to make a career quickly. In his incomplete 30 years, the feet of the Belarusian depthint with a diploma of the candidate of economic sciences almost immediately after the arrival in NKID received the responsible post of the head of the department of American countries. It was an unusually steep rise even at the time when the careers were created and collapsed overnight. A young diplomat did not have time to settle in his new apartments at Smolensk Square, as a challenge to the Kremlin followed. Stalin in the presence of Molotova said: "Comrade Gromyko, we intend to send you to work at the USSR Embassy in the United States as an adviser." So, A. Gromyko for four years has become an adviser to the embassy in the United States and at the same time a messenger in Cuba.

In 1946-1949 Deputy. Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR and at the same time in 1946-1948. fast. Representative of the USSR for the UN, in 1949-1952. and 1953-1957 First deputy. Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, in 1952-1953 The USSR Ambassador to the United Kingdom, in April 1957, Gromyko is appointed by the USSR Foreign Minister and works in this post until July 1985. Since 1983, the first deputy chairman of the Sovmina of the USSR. In 1985-1988 Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

The diplomatic talent of Andrei Andreevich Gromyko was noticed abroad quickly. Analyst recognized by the West the authority of Andrei Gromyko was the highest sample. In August 1947, Times magazine wrote: "As a permanent Representative of the Soviet Union in the Safety Council, thoroughly makes its work at the level of breathtaking competence."

At the same time, with the light hand of Western journalists, Andrei Gromyko, as an active participant " cold War"Became the owner of a whole series of unflattering nicknames like" Andrei Wolf "," Robot Misanthrop "," Man without face "," Modern Neanderthals ", etc. Gromyko became well known in international circles with his forever dissatisfied and gloomy facial expression, And also extremely unstainless actions, for which he received the nickname "Mr No". As for this, the nickname A. A. Gromyko noted: "My" no "they heard much less often than I" know them ", because we have advanced much more suggestions. I was called me in their newspapers "Mr." because I did not allow manipulation by myself. Who sought to do this, wanted to manipulate the Soviet Union. We are a great power, and I will not do this anyone! "

Thanks to his disadvantage, he got the nickname "Mr No"

However, Willie Brandt, Chancellor of Germany in the memoirs noted: "I found a rudely more pleasant interlocutor than it imagined himself about the stories about the sorry of the ulcer" Mr. ". He impressed the impression of a correct and imperturbable man, restrained to a pleasant Angloquesian manner. He skilled in unobtrusive form to give to understand what enormity he possesses. "

A. A. Gromyko solely firmly adhered to the approved position. "The Soviet Union in the international arena is me - I thought Andrei Gromyko. - All our successes in the negotiations that led to the conclusion of important international treaties And the agreements are explained by the fact that I was convinced of the firm and even adamant in particular when I saw that with me, and therefore, with the Soviet Union, talking from the position of the force or play the "cat-mouse". I never Lebesil before Wessengers and after I was beaten over the same cheek, I did not substitute the second. Moreover, I acted so that it was not in the measure of the obstinate opponent, it was embarrassed. "

Many did not know that A. A. Gromyko had a delicious sense of humor. His comments could include female comments that became a surprise in tense moments when receiving delegations. Henry Kissinger, coming to Moscow, was constantly afraid of listening from the KGB. Once, during a meeting, he pointed to the chandelier, hanging in the room, and asked the KGB to make him a copy of American documents, since the Americans "failed" a copying machinery. Thunder in tone answered him that the chandeliers were made in the kings and only microphones can be in them.

Among the most important achievements, Andrei Gromyko highlighted four points: the creation of the UN, the development of agreements on limitation nuclear weapons, the legalization of borders in Europe and, finally, recognizing the United States for the USSR. The role of the Great Power.

Few people remember today that the UN was conceived in Moscow. It was here in October 1943, the Soviet Union, the United States and the United Kingdom announced that the world needs an international security organization. It was easy to declare, but it is difficult to do. Gromyko stood at the origlists of the UN, under the charter of this organization stands his signature. In 1946, he became the first Soviet representative in the UN and at the same time deputy, and then the First Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs. Gromyko was a member, and subsequently the head of the delegation of our country at 22 sessions of the UN General Assembly.

"The issue of questions", "ultra-shock", according to the expression of A. A. Gromyko itself, was for him the process of negotiations for controlling arms race as ordinary and nuclear. He passed all the stages of the post-war disarmed epic. Already in 1946, on behalf of the USSR, A. A. Gromyko made a proposal for generally reduce and regulating weapons and on the prohibition of military use of atomic energy. The subject of a special pride thoroughly signed on August 5, 1963 tests for testing nuclear weapons In the atmosphere, in outer space and under water, negotiations on which they stretched from 1958.

Another priority of foreign policy A. A. Gromyko considered the consolidation of the results of the Second World War. This is, first of all, the settlement around West Berlin, the design of the status quo with two German states, Germany and GDR, and then pan-European affairs.

Huge forces, perseverance and flexibility demanded the historical agreements of the USSR (and then Poland and Czechoslovakia) with Germany in 1970-1971, as well as the four-sided agreement of 1971 in West Berlin. As far as the personal role of A. A. Gromyko in the preparation of these fundamental documents in Europe in Europe, it is clear to at least from the fact that in order to develop the text of the Moscow Treaty of 1970, he held 15 meetings with the adviser to Chancellor V. Brandt E. Bar and as much with the minister Foreign affairs V. Scheel.

It was they who preceded their efforts to calculate the path to discharge and convene a meeting on security and cooperation in Europe. The value signed in August 1975 in Helsinki's final act was a global scale. It was essentially a code of behavior of states in key areas of relationships, including military-political. The invisibility of post-war borders in Europe was fixed, which A. A. Gromyko attached its particular importance, the prerequisites for strengthening European stability and security were established.

It is thanks to the efforts of A. A. Gromyko, all points over "I" between the USSR and the United States during the Cold War were placed. In September 1984, on the initiative of Americans in Washington, Andrei Gromyko was held with Ronald Reagan. These were the first Raigan negotiations with the representative of the Soviet leadership. Reagan acknowledged the status of the superpower for the Soviet Union. But even more significant was another statement. Let me remind you to the words that are herald of the myth about the "Evil Empire" after the end of the meeting in the White House: "The United States respect the status of the Soviet Union as a superpower ... And we have no desire to change its social system." Thus, diplomacy rollerously achieved from the US official recognition of the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of the Soviet Union.

Thanks to the rolleros, the relations of the USSR and the USA were stabilized

Andrei Gromyko wore many facts forgotten by wide circles of the international community. "You imagine," Andrei Rusyomko told his son, "he acts, yes, no anyone, and the British Macmillan, Prime Minister of Great Britain. Since it was in the height of the "Cold War", makes attacks at our address. Well, I would say, there is a regular Oon cuisine, with all its political, diplomatic and propaganda techniques. I sit and think, as on these attacks on occasion, during the debate, answer. Suddenly, Nikita Sergeevich sitting next to me bends and, as I first thought, I was looking for something under the table. I even slightly moved away to him not to interfere. And suddenly I see - pulls out the boot and begins to bother them along the surface of the table. Frankly, the first thought was that Khrushchev is bad. But in a moment I realized that our leader protests in this way, seeks to put Macmillan in an awkward position. I all strained and against my will began to knock on the table with fists - because it was necessary to somehow support the chapter of the Soviet delegation. In the direction of Khrushchev did not look, I was awkward. The situation was really comic. And after all, it is surprising, you can pronounce dozens of smart and even brilliant speeches, but no one will remember a speaker across decades, Khrushchev's shoe will not forget.

As a result of almost half-century practice, A. A. Gromyko developed for himself "Golden Rules" of diplomatic work, which, however, are relevant not only for diplomats:

- absolutely unacceptably immediately disclose all the cards, want to solve the problem with one felling;

- careful use of meetings in the top; poorly prepared, they bring more harm than good;

- It is impossible to allow manipulation by neither coarse or with the help of sophisticated funds;

- For success in foreign policy, the real estimate of the situation is needed. It is even more important that this reality does not disappear anywhere;

- the most difficult - consolidation of a real situation with diplomatic agreements, international legal registration of a compromise;

- Constant struggle for the initiative. In diplomacy, the initiative is the best way to protect government interests.

A. A. Gromyko believed that diplomatic activity is a difficult work, requiring from those who deal with the mobilization of all their knowledge and abilities. The task of the diplomat is "fighting to the end for the interests of your country, without prejudice to others." "Work all over the range international relations, Finding useful links between individuals seemingly, processes, "this thought was a kind of constant of his diplomatic activity. "The main thing in diplomacy is a compromise, a way between states and their leaders."

In October 1988, Andrei Andreevich retired and worked on memoirs. He left his life on July 2, 1989. "The state, Fatherland is us," he loved to say. - If we do not do, no one will do. "

Born on January 25, 1928. In the village of Mamat Lanchhutsky District (Guri).

He graduated from the Tbilisi Medical Technical School. In 1959 he graduated from Kutaisky pedagogical Institute them. A. Tsulukidze.

Since 1946, on Komsomol and party work. From 1961 to 1964, he was the first secretary of the Russian Communist Party of Georgia in Mtskhete, and then the first secretary of the Pervomaisky district of the Tbilisi Party. In the period from 1964 to 1972 - First Deputy Minister for the Protection of Public Order, then - Minister of Internal Affairs of Georgia. From 1972 to 1985 - the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Committee of Georgia. In this post, he conducted a large publishing campaign to combat the shadow market and corruption, which, however, did not lead to the eradication of these phenomena.

In 1985-1990, the USSR Foreign Minister, from 1985 to 1990, a member of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee. Deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR 9-11 convocations. In 1990-1991 - People's Deputy of the USSR.

In December 1990, he retired "in protest against the impending dictatorship" and in the same year came out of the Rows of the CPSU. In November 1991, at the invitation of Gorbachev, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR (called the Ministry of External Relations at the time), but after the collapse of the USSR, this post was abolished after the collapse.

Shevardnadze was one of Gorbachev's associates in holding a restructuring policy

In December 1991, the Minister of External Relations of the USSR E. A. Shevardnadze One of the first among the leaders of the USSR recognized Belovezhsky Agreements and the upcoming termination of the existence of the USSR.

E. A. Shevardnadze was one of the associates of M. S. Gorbacheva in holding the policy of restructuring, publicity and the discharge of international tensions.

Sources

http://firstolymp.ru/2014/05/28/andrej-yanuarevich-vyshinskij/
http://krsk.mid.ru/gromyko-andrej-andreevic

) year with quality Folk Commissariat for Foreign Affairs And he was among the first national commissariates formed in accordance with the decree "On the establishment of the Council of People's Commissar".

On December 30, 1922, the first congress of the Councils of the USSR adopted an agreement on the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The second session of the USSR CEC approved on July 6, 1923 the Constitution of the USSR, according to Articles 49 and 51 of which was formed NKID USSR.

On November 12, 1923, the 4th session of the USSR CEC approved a new provision on the USSR NKID. The People's Commissaries of the Union republics and their representation abroad were eliminated. At the same time in the Union republics, the Office of the Commissioner NKID of the USSR was created.

In 1923-1925, Viktor Leontievich Kopp was Viktor Leontievich Kopp, and in 1925-1927, Semyon Ivanovich Aralov, was the head of the authorized NKID of the USSR at SNK RSFSR, and Semyon Ivanovich Aralov.

In 1944, the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR was recreated. In 1944-1946, the Commissar was Anatoly Iosifovich Lavrentiev. In 1946, reformed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR.

At the beginning of the 1930s, the second stride of recognition of the USSR came, when diplomatic relations with Spain, USA, Bulgaria, Hungary, Albania, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Colombia were established.

In December 1936, in accordance with the newly adopted Constitution of 1936, the NKID changed the name. He became known People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, but not according to foreign affairs, as it was before.

Folk Commissioners Foreign Affairs

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The People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs of the Ukrainian SSR is the Foreign Affairs Office. Ukraine, based on the creation of December 14, 1917 (Art. Art.) In Kharkov, the congress of the councils r. Secretariat on Miznac. Affairs of the Soviets. UR led by Bolshevik S. Bakinskikh (L. Bergeyim; 1886-1939). But the fundamental issues of an international nature should be solved directly by the CEC Councils. Ukraine and the government, therefore, in fact, the main task of the department of S. Bakinsksky became coordinating combat operations of the Soviets. Russia and UNR of the People's Secretariat against the Verevilic Troops of the Don and UNR Ukrainian Central Rada. From the beginning of the naval. The activity of advice. Ukraine was associated with diplomacy of advice. Russia in the Brest peace negotiations 1918 The role of representatives of legitimate Ukrainian. governments had visa

You were created on January 12, 1918 (December 30, 1917) CEC of Soviets. Ukraine Mission as part of Yu.Medvedeva (Chairman) and r. The secretaries of V. Zatonsky and V.Shakhray, who became part of Rus. Delegation. Delegation, as opposed to representatives of the UCR, not reaching noticeable diplomatic success. March 1, 1918 in Poltava r. Secretariat on Miznac. Affairs was reorganized in r. The Secretariat of Foreign Affairs, led by V. Zatonsky, whom the violin changed on March 4 (at the same time the chairman of his birth. Secretariat). Together with Y.Kotskyubinsky and M.Vruruvsky, he headed the Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Embassy of the CEC Councils. Ukraine and birth. The secretariat to Moscow, where unsuccessfully tried to keep UKR in the RSFSR. Soviet management structures, but the Government of V.lanin did not want to involve Russia in the war with Germany. Therefore, Ukr. Soviets. The structures were dissolved (according to the official versions, they stopped functioning). As part of the temporary worker-peasant government of Ukraine, formed in G. Fudge (now the city of Kursk region) November 28, 1918, foreign resistant. The agency was not envisaged, only with its reorganization on January 28, 1919 in Kharkov in the SNC of the Ukrainian SSR, the p. Commissariat of Foreign Affairs (NKID) headed by the Chairman of the Government of H. Wankovsky. Already on the environment. 1919 He became an extensive establishment as part of 9 divisions, in particular, diplomatically consular, legal, foreign. Agencies, diplomas, general, information and archival. However, the system restructuring of the NCID of the NCID of the Ukrainian SSR began since 1920, when the "Regulations on the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs of the Republic" was developed, according to which the functions were imposed on it: diplomatic relations with foreign. We are about the tasks of the government; Development of internet projects. acts for approval by their supreme power of the Ukrainian SSR; hands-in the activities of diplomatic missions and consular institutions; Protection of legitimate interests of the USSR citizens abroad and foreigners in Ukraine; contacts with the diplomatic corps of foreign states-in; Collect information about socio-eco., Polit., Cult. a life

Foreigner state-in; Maintaining foreign resistant. Propaganda. At the head of the department stood r. Commissioner for Foreign Affairs and College; The People's Commissar and his deputy were approved by the All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee on Government. For the selection and placement of diplomatic personnel, their loyalty to the Bolshevik regime, belonging to the ruling party, was put forward to the fore. Heads of Divisions Center. The device and clutches were entered into the desk. Nomenclature. At the meetings of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CP (b), issues of the missions of missions abroad, their states, personnel movements were solved. The activities and footage of NKID were under the closer control of state bodies.

People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR. L.D. Tretsky, G.V. Chicherin.

After october revolution 1917 in accordance with the decree of the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets of October 26 (November 8) "On the establishment of the Council of People's Commissar", the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs led by L.Dtretsky was formed.

On October 18, 1918, the decrees of SNK RSFSR were adopted about the organization of consulates abroad ("On the abolition of ranks of diplomatic representatives" and "On Consuls").

Diplomatic insulation of the Soviet state in the first years of Soviet power during Civil War And the military intervention led to the fact that the official and unofficial representative offices of the NKID RSFSR abroad were liquidated, and the first Soviet diplomats of Joffe A. A., Litvinov M. M., Vorovsky V. V., Berzin Ya. A. and others. Sentree From the respective countries and returned to Moscow.

According to Richard Pipes, the only undoubted contribution of Trotsky in martialctions Civil War was the defense of Petrograd 1919. Despite the fact that the Red 7th Army had an almost five times the ability to live in front of the North-West Army of Yudenich, Petrograd was covered by a panic, including the White Guard Tanks, and Lenin seriously considered the perspective of the city. Trotsky was able to raise the troops fallen in his speeches. After that, the Red Army finally were able to take advantage of their numerical advantage and defeat the White Guard.

Trotsky is repeatedly personally for the forefront, in August 1918 his train was almost captured by the White Guards, and later in the same month he almost died at the Marton Guide of the Volga River Flotily. Several times Trotsky, risking his life, performs with speeches even before deserters. At the same time, the turbulent activity of the continuously struck on the fronts of the previevesting is beginning to increasingly cause irritation of a number of his subordinates, leading to a variety of high-profile personal quarrels. The most significant of them was the personal conflict of Trotsky with Stalin and Voroshilov during the defense of Tsaritsyn in 1918.

Trotsky faces the task to overcome the resistance of the strikers of the former Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to carry out the publishing of secret treaties of the royal government planned by the Bolsheviks, as well as enter into peace and achieve international recognition of the new government.

If Trotsky coped with the first task, the conclusion of the Fair World and the international recognition of the Soviet government turned out to be both for him and, for a long time, for subsequent addresses, an unbearable task. The Soviet republic was not recognized by any state of the world, with the exception of Germany, peaceful negotiations in Brest-Litovsk ended in the German offensive in the spring of 1918, and the signing of the world at extremely unprofitable conditions for Russia. On February 22, 1918, Trotsky refers to the sign of protest against the conclusion of the Brest world, in March 1918, the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars, V.I., Chairman of the Council of People's Commissariat of Sovnarkom.

During November, the NKID was reorganized. By the end of January 1918, the total number of employees of the Commissioner reached 200 people. Among them were later visited diplomats V.V. Vorovsky, L.M. Karakhan, M.M.Litvinov, Ya.Z. Suritz and others. In May 1918, the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs became an outstanding statesman and diplomat G.V. Chicherin. Signed Brest Mir (March 3, 1918), from April 9, after the transition of Trotsky to the Military People's Commissariat, became and. about. People's Commissars on foreign affairs since May 30, the People's Commissar on Foreign Affairs. As the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the RSFSR and the USSR (1918-1930), Chicherin made a significant diplomatic contribution to the removal of Soviet Russia from international isolation. In 1921, he concluded contracts with Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan, according to which all Russian property was given in these countries. In 1922, he headed the Soviet delegation at the Genoese Conference, during the conference signed with the German Minister of Foreign Affairs by Walter Ratenau Rapalle Agreement (the name occurs on behalf of the town of Rapallo under the Genoa, where the signing took place).

In December 1919, the VII All-Russian Congress of Soviets suggested that the Honors of the Entente immediately begin peaceful negotiations and instructed the Moscow State University and NKID "systematically continue the policy of the world."

In April 1922, Soviet Russia was first invited to the International Conference in Genoa, during which the Rapalle Agreement (1922) with Germany was signed on April 16, which established diplomatic relations between the two countries. With other Western countries - Austria, Great Britain, Norway - were established contractual relationship de facto. In November 1922, the Consulate General of the RSFSR in Istanbul (Turkey

55. People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs of the USSR and Soviet diplomacy in the 1920s. G.V. Chicherin.

On December 30, 1922, the first congress of the Councils of the USSR adopted an agreement on the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The second session of the USSR CEC approved the Constitution of the USSR on July 6, 1923, according to Articles 49 and 51 of which the USSR NKID was formed.

In 1923-1925, the head of the Office of the Commissioner of the USSR NKID at SNK RSFSR was Viktor Leontievich Kopp, and in 1925-1927 - Semen Ivanovich Aralov

signing in 1925 in Paris of the Soviet-Turkish Agriculture and Neutrality and the Signing of the same Treaty in 1927 with Iran and much more.

Preparing for the economic conference in Genoa, Chicherin included the delegation of the best economists who made up Russian responses to the West, and also developed projects of economic cooperation, etc. In this direction, the tactic of the Russian delegation was successful.

All days, from 10 to 16 April 1922, in Genoa were filled with meetings, negotiations, meetings. Immediately it became clear that Soviet Russia would not pay debts as simple, but would agree to this only if these debts were compensated by loans that would go to the restoration of the national economy. Chicherin demanded recognition of Soviet counterpension, the establishment of the world at the borders of Soviet Russia, the legal recognition of the Soviet government. Finally, Chicherin put forward a proposal for universal disarmament and peaceful coexistence.

Then, in 1922, the main event in the framework of the Genoese Conference was the signing of the Rapalle Treaty between Russia and Germany. It was the first agreement for the post-revolutionary Russia with one of the leading European powers - Germany, who meant for both breakthrough isolation, the transition to large-scale mutual trade and economic and political cooperation. Two states agreed to recognize each other de Jura and establish diplomatic relations, abandon mutual claims, to mutually provide the greatest favored regime.

Chicherin possessed phenomenal memory and abilities to foreign languages. He read freely and wrote at the main European languages, knew Latin, Hebrew, Hindi, Arabic. Chicherina's secretary briefly told that in Poland and the Baltic countries "he uttered speeches in the language of the state in which he was".

In the first half of 1921, a general structure of the NKID was formed, which existed with some changes before the beginning of World War II. Chicherin offered to create departments on major countries, strengthen the economic and legal department and the department of printing and information, including old specialists.

Georgy Vasilyevich headed the Soviet delegation at the conference in Lausanne, where the principled position engaged in them contributed to the further development of the movement of the peoples of the East for national independence.

However, internal diplomacy often took more time and nerves than the exterior diplomacy. Former Soviet diplomat G. Z. Conduzovsky, who remained in Paris in 1929, recognized that "Chicherin was undoubtedly an outstanding figure, with a large state-wide, wide horizons and understanding of Europe." "The first years of NEPA," said Be-Sedovsky, "Chicherin's enthusiasm was especially awakened. In these years, even the permanent intrigues of Litvinov did not kill their will to work in it. "

MM Litvinov managed to correctly assess the balance of power and supported Stalin. "Beginning since 1923, the fierce fighting with Chicherin," wrote Bazenovsky, "Litvinov led this struggle, not embarrassed in the means. He discredited Chicherina in front of the officials of Nicknamedel, canceled his orders, stressed on official reports of his order and put his own. The essence of disagreements between "Wessengers", who were supported by many people of the Comintern, and "Easters", was that the first were focused on the rapid victory of the "World Revolution" primarily in the forefront of Europe and the United States and counted on pushing the revolution in underdeveloped countries, first of all In the countries of the USSR neighbors.

Another group of persons "adhered to," according to the employee of the staff of the Comintern G. I. Safarov, - the view that neither in Turkey, nor in Persia, nor in the Middle and Middle East generally communist and working It is not entitled to exist that, acting a contrary to this, the Comintern "is engaged in adventures." They opposed the "Sovietization of Turkey" and other countries. It is not by chance that Chicherin is still in June 1921 in the instructions of a plenipote in Afghanistan F.F. Raskolnikov warned him from "artificial attempts to plant communism in the country, where the conditions for this do not exist."

In January 1930, he returned to Moscow. July 21, the Presidium CEC USSR satisfied the request of Chicherin and freed him from the duties of the addict