International Relations and Foreign Policy of the USSR in the 30s of the twentieth century
The formation of a focus of war in the Far East. Japanese ruling circles over the years have hatched extensive concrete plans and were actively preparing for their implementation. These plans with marginal frankness were set forth in the''MemoRandum Tanaka'''''', filed by the Japanese emperor in 1927. The author of this Memorandum, who then held the post of the Japanese Prime Minister, demanded the seizure of Northeast China (Manchuria) and Mongolia, the War with the Soviet Union and the seizure of the Soviet Far East and Siberia, establishing Japanese domination over China, and then over the south East Asia and India.
The first step to the implementation of this program Japanese imperialists made in 1931-1932., Capturing Northeast China.
International setting of 1930-1931. It was characterized by the exacerbation of relations between the USSR and capitalist countries. Under these conditions, it was possible to expect that Western powers would not oppose the Japanese aggression in Northern China, clearly whisient against the USSR.
September 18, 1931 ᴦ. Japanese troops located in the zone of the South Manchu region of the Drying Road, proceeded to the occupation of Northeast China. As a pretext for this occupation, the Japanese authorities used a false message, as if the Chinese made an explosion at the South Manchu road.
Chinese ruling circles did not give any resistance to Japanese invaders. In February 1932 ᴦ. Japanese troops completed the occupation of the North-East China. March 1, 1932 ᴦ. The Japanese authorities officially announced the creation on the captured territory of the new 'State ", the so-called Manzhou-go. He headed him was delivered in 1912. The last Chinese emperor PU I. The first focus of the New World War was created in the Far East.
In October 1931 ᴦ. The Council of the League of Nations considered the complaint of the Chinese government to the aggression of Japan. Most of the members of the Council supported the resolution that bought Japan in a three-week time to withdraw their troops from China. Japan voted against this resolution and thos tightened the decision on the issue under discussion (since the decisions of the Council of the League of Nations could only be taken unanimously).
In December 1931 ᴦ. The League Council of Nations appointed a commission to examine the Japaway-Chinese conflict at the place and providing the recommendations of the Nations.
In January 1932 ᴦ. US Secretary of State N. Stimson sent to the governments of Japan and China a note in which the provisions created by the United States created by one-sided Action of Japan, but'Dotrina Stimson'''t did not provide for any effective measures to protect the territorial integrity of China.
In fact, both the League of Nations and the US government eliminated from providing any assistance to China and thereby untied the Japan hands for further acts of aggression.
The discussion of the Japanese-Chinese conflict in the League of Nations was the beginning of the 'Polyatics of non-intervention.
Despite the fact that the League of Nations actually recognized the domination of Japan in the northeast of China, she caused a rapid indignation of the Japanese military . March 27, 1933 ᴦ. Japan came out of the League of Nations. At the same time, she began the occupation of a number of provinces of North China.
The aggressive actions of Japan and the policy of non-resistance to them from the Western powers encouraged the entire supporters of the world in Europe and, before in Germany.
The seizure of Japan Northeast China aggravated Soviet-Japanese relations. The Manchurian authorities and the Japanese military began to organize new provocations for the CER and along the Soviet Far Eastern Lights. The Soviet government, seeking to strengthen the world in the Far East, appealed at the end of 1931. To Japan with a proposal to conclude a nonsense pact. At the same time, Japan rejected this proposal.
The Soviet Union did not recognize the seizure of Japan northeast China. In December 1932 ᴦ. were restored Diplomatic relations between the USSR and Chinabroken in 1929 ᴦ. According to the wines of the Khomintovsky government.
Education of the focus of war in Europe. The new impetus to the exacerbation of the international situation in Europe gave the seizure of power in Germany National Socialist Party. The views of the Nazis were long known to the international community. Back in 1924 ᴦ. A. Hitler in''min Campf'''' outlined the program of conquest by the Germans of Europe and the establishment of world domination.
Announced the Germans''Shole Rask'''i'ras, the Lord'''', he called them to acquire for himself''-banned space'' ', to enslavement and extermination of'. A. Hitler painted an extensive program of German expansion both on the contingency in Europe and in colonies. At the same time, he emphasized that new territories need to look for before in the east of Europe, due to Soviet UnionHe called on the Germans to the total, fighter war that does not know the difference between the front and the rear.
In the years of the global economic crisis, the Nazis launched campaigning for the abolition of the Versailles world, for the armament of Germany, for violent redistribution maps of Europe.
The arrival of A. Hitler to power in 1933 in Germany aroused anxiety of international community. The first steps of the new German government in the international arena showed that this anxiety was quite reasonable. The fascist party has created a threat to the safety of CJSC European states. Her efforts to Germany was turned into a focus of war in Europe.
In June 1933 ᴦ. in Londonopened International Economic Conference. The head of the German affairs at this conference made a statement in which he demanded the transfer of Germans of Soviet Ukraine and other inhabited territories of the Soviet Union.
This statement caused a huge indignation in democratic circles and the official protest from the Soviet government.
The Geneva Conference on Disarmament of the German affairs of the Geneva Conference on Disarmament of the German affairs in an ultimatomative form was demanded by the recognition of'' Eravii''''n Germany with other armaments. At the same time she was denied in this. October 14, 1933. Germany left the conference on disarmament, and a few days later he declared his exit from the League of Nations. These Nazis unleashed their hands for one-sided elimination of military restrictions on the Versailles.
In March 1934 ᴦ. The German Reichstag approved the military budget, which provided for large allocations for the maintenance of the air fleet of prohibited German by the Versailles world. In July 1934 ᴦ. Hitler tried to capture Austria. On the Austrian borders were concentrated german troops. In Vienna, a Nazi Patch occurred. The Austrian Chancellor Dolphus was killed. Austria escaped the German occupation in 1934 ᴦ., Only because it was opposed to the Italian fascist dictator - B. Mussolini, who himself sought to take possession of this country.
In January 1935 ᴦ. In the Saaric region (France) there was plebiscite (survey of the people), provided for by the Versailles world. The Nazis, skillfully speculating on the natural desire of the population of Saara to return to Germany and severely pursuing the entire supporters of preserving the existing position in Saare, ensured themselves most of the votes. The Saar region was returned to Germany, which largely increased its military-industrial potential.
In March 1935 ᴦ. The German government adopted a law on restoring in Germany in general military service. The German General Headquarters was restored. Germany also recreated military aviation and underwater fleet.
March 7, 1936 ᴦ. The German government officially announced the abolition of the paragraph of the Versailles peace treaty regarding the creation of the Rhine demilitarized zone. On the same day, German troops entered the Rhine Zone and started building military structures in it.
The one-sided termination of Germany's military articles of the Versailles and the rapid growth of the German army was closely overlooked to Europe.
Under these conditions in December 1933 ᴦ. The Soviet government proposed to create a collective security system in which the aggressor state had to meet the resistance of Sun european countries. For the propaganda of this idea, the tribune of the authoritative international organization was actively used - the League of Nations, where the USSR joined 1934. In 1935 ᴦ. The Soviet Union signed contracts with France and Czechoslovakia, providing assistance, incl. and limited military, in the event of an attack of the aggressor. Moscow condemned the fascist Italy, which began a conciliatory war in Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia), assisted with anti-fascist forces in Spain (1939 ᴦ.), As well as China.
Anshlus Austria is 1938. By the end of 1937, fascist Germany mainly completed the preparation for a big war. At the meeting, A. Hitler was resolved the issue of principal importance: in which direction, fascist Germany will bring the first strike - against the USSR or against Western countries. The leadership of fascist Germany decided to begin the struggle for world domination with attacks in England and France, whatever to enter the War from the USSR. As an extremely important, the background of a successful military campaign to the West, the fascist leadership viewed the seizure of Austria, Czechoslovakia and'Nenetralization'''' Poland.
In February 1938, changes occurred in the leadership of fascist Germany. The command of Wehrmacht A. Hitler as the Supreme Commander took over. The Minister of Foreign Affairs became A. Ribbentrop.
Open acts of aggression on the agenda, the Nazis fully took into account the well-defined readiness of the Western powers to pay A. Hitler Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Balkans. Instead, the government of leading European countries expects to receive from Germany a guarantee of the safety of Western European countries and preserving their colonial possession. Austria has become the first victim of fascist Germany in Central Europe.
At dawn on March 12, 1938, the 300 thousandth German army jumped into Austria. A. Hitler announced the''Vosoxinential''' - Avshlus Austria with Germany. Austria has turned into one of the provinces of the fascist third Reich.
England, France and the United States officially recognized the seizure of Austria. Closed their embassies in Vienna.
After anchlus Austria, not one European country could not feel safe. Czechoslovakia was now surrounded from three sides, and the establishment of the immediate boundary of Germany with Italy, Yugoslavia and Hungary facilitated the fascists expansion to the Balkans.
Munich Agreement 1938. Section Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia capture would provide Germany to acquire richest industrial and agricultural resources. Inspired by the unpunished seizure of Austria, the Nazis in accordance with the conciliatory program, formulated by A. Hitler on November 5, 1937, was in a hurry with the implementation of a new aggressive promotion, now against Czechoslovakia to discover the road for a big war.
Highly developed in industrial attitude, rich in steady coal, rude ore and other raw materials, Czechoslovakia has long been an object of aggressive plans of the German Nazis. The Nazis instructed to eliminate the national statehood of Czechs and Slovaks.
The head of the Nationalist Socialist Party in Sudetes - Genlain, speaking on April 24, 1938 in Karlovy Vary, demanded full autonomy for the Germans living in Czechoslovakia, and full freedom of fascist propaganda. At the same time, the development of events in May 1938 overturned Hitler plans for the immediate capture of Czechoslovakia. A partial mobilization was carried out in the country. Czechoslovak troops occupied border fortifications and were ready to meet the fascist invasion in all. According to german plan ''Gryun'' 'in Operations against Czechoslovakia envisaged to use 30 divisions.
On May 21, 1938, English and French governments in categorical form were warned by Germany from a military attack on Czechoslovakia. ʜᴎʜᴎ even stated that, otherwise, in defense of Czechoslovakia. Hitler joined them into negotiations and demanded that he had decided to solve the Czechoslovatsky problem by the return of Returns' Rih 3 million Sudetsky Germans. As a result, on September 19, 1938, the Government of England and France presented Czechoslovakia Ultimatum: Czechoslovakia was supposed to transfer Germany, where the Germans made up more than half of the population. Pacts about mutual assistance concluded by Czechoslovakia with France and the USSR were subject to cancellation. Instead, England and France promised Czechoslovakia''Garancy 'her new borders. On September 21, 1938, the Czechoslovak government adopted the Anglo-French ultimatum.
On September 29, 1938, A. Hitler was held in Munich with the heads of the Government of England (N. Chamberlain), France (E. Daladje) and Italy (B. Mussolini), who set their signatures under the proposed Nazis document on Section-Czechoslovakia. She was prescribed in a week later to transfer Germany, the sundel region and the border areas with it. Representatives of Czechoslovakia themselves were caused to Munich only in order to listen to the sentence.
The next morning, on September 30, 1938, the conditions on which the ruling circles of England agreed to issue the fascist Germany Czechoslovakia became known. It was''Bashing'''a Gitler not to attack England fixed in the Anglo-German Declaration, signed by N. Chamberlain and A. Hitler. Later, a similar Franco-German Declaration was signed. Gitlerians could now develop expansion plans to the East. The USSR was removed from participation in the resolution of the military-political conflict. "Arriving in Europe around Czechoslovakia.
The Munich Agreement of the Western Power with A. Hitler was the largest strategic miscalculation of Western diplomacy of the twentieth century. It caused a heavy blow to the Security System, the world threat to fascism arose. After Munich, the irreversible process of rapid rolling to war began.
Soon, Germany occupied all the Czechoslovakia. Most of the country was included in the third Reich called'Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia'''' '. In Slovakia, a state dependent on Germany was created. The capture of Czechoslovakia opened the Hitler the road for expansion to the Eastern and South of Eastern Europe.
After Munich, Germany presented claims to Poland, and military hazard increased extremely. The British figures, who proclaimed at first, that Munich provided the world for a whole generation, took measures to enhance the arming of their country to continue Munich politics from more favorable positions.
International relations and foreign policy of the USSR in the 30s of the twentieth century - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "International Relations and Foreign Policy of the USSR in the 30s of the twentieth century" 2017, 2018.
After World War I, international relations were determined by the Versailles-Washington system - a number of contracts and agreements in favor of winning countries. Germany was announced by the only guilty of the war and was supposed to pay reparations - payments to other states affected by the war.
She lost part of the territory in Europe and its colonies, should have reduced the army.
Versailles-Washington system ignored the interests of not only Germany, but also by Soviet Russia. This circumstance contributed to the approach of these two countries in the international arena. Germany purchased raw materials in the USSR, food, led on its territory the preparation of military personnel and the test of technology prohibited by the Versailles.
The development of events showed that the economic revival of Germany was beneficial to the winners, otherwise it was impossible to receive reparations. In the summer of 1924, the International Conference in London adopted a Dower Plan, according to which American and British banks provided Germany to restore the economy. Intensifying economically, Germany was not satisfied with an unequal position in the system of international relations. The Locarnas International Conference of 1925 was important in Germany in Germany as a whole in the spirit of the preservation of the Versailles-Washington system. but
Germany refused to guarantee its eastern borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia, considering them unfair. Despite this, next year (1926), Germany was adopted in the League of Nations and received a permanent place in its advice, like other great powers. It was the first step to revise the Versailles-Washington system.
France feared the revengery aspirations of Germany. In 1928, French Foreign Minister Brian nominated the idea of \u200b\u200bsigning an agreement on the refusal of the war as a fundamental policy. All the leading states, including the USSR, signed a Bakian-Kellog pact.
The international situation was unstable. In 1925-1926, Anglo-Soviet relations aggravated. The USSR was accused of interfering in the internal affairs of England. The reason was the material assistance provided by the Soviet unions of the English workers during universal strikes. In 1927, the British government broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR, annulled a trade agreement.
The global economic crisis that began at the end of 1929 led to the restructuring of international relations. Lost stability of the financial and currency system of capitalist countries, including Germany. In 1929, the Special Committee under the leadership of Jung decided to reduce reparation payments. France and England, having ceased to receive reparations, also stopped paying their US military debts. Taking advantage of this, Germany in 1932 achieved the final abolition of reparations. This led to the cessation of debt payment, despite the resistance of the United States. Thus, the entire system of post-war payments collapsed under the blows of the global economic crisis. In the same 1932, Germany, in principle, was recognized by her equality in the field of weapons.
The first country, who discarded the principles of the Versailles-Washington system and applied the power in the struggle for the new redistribution of the world, became Japan.
She competed with the United States to establish domination over China and in the Pacific Pool. In September 1931, the Japanese troops began the occupation of northeastern China (Manchuria). Having captured all Manchuria, Japan created on the occupied territory the puppet state of Manzhou. When, after long-wires, the League of Nations in his resolution condemned the capture of Manchuria and demanded to return it to China, Japan came out of the League of Nations in March 1933 and began the occupation of a number of other provinces of North China.
The main focus of the Second World War emerged in the center of Europe, in Germany. Here in January 1933 the fascist dictatorship was established. The Fascists of Germany intended any means to cancel the restrictions established in Versailles, to fight for the return of colonies and additional territories for the Germans. Economic difficulties in the country they were explained by the infringement of Germany in the international arena and disadvantage of territories for the development of the German people. The secret weapons of the country accelerated. In the fall of 1933, Germany left the League of Nations, left the Geneva Conference on Disarmament and was freedom to further violate articles of the Versailles. In March 1935, a universal military service was restored in the country. A year later, German troops were introduced into the Rhine Demilitarized Zone. Thus, military articles of the Versailles and Locarnic Agreements of 1925 were violated. These actions, Germany accompanied the refusal to participate in the creation of a European collective security system, the project of which in the mid-1930s was actively discussed in Europe. All this testified to the preparation of the Hitler's government to unleash the war. And although in January 1934, the German-Polish treaty on friendship and nonsense was signed in Berlin, the Fascists of Germany was scheduled for Poland one of the first victims in the struggle for the redistribution of peace.
In the decor of international tension, many countries were looking for new allies. Attempts to create a collective security system by conclusion international treaties On the performance of the united front against the aggressor. France, concerned about the enhancement of Germany, began to look for the way to cooperate with the USSR (Russia was the traditional ally of France). The USSR also searched for allies in the West and with the support of France in the fall of 1934 entered the League of Nations. An attempt was made to conclude an Eastern Covenant on mutual assistance in the event of aggression. He was supposed to sign a number of Baltic and Eastern European countries. However, this was not possible due to the opposition of Germany and Poland, who feared the growth of the influence of the USSR in Europe. In May 1935, bilateral Soviet-French and Soviet-Czechoslovak treaties on mutual assistance were signed. They could become an obstacle on the path of Hitler's aggression. But Western circles regarded contracts from the USSR as a maneuver, and not as a long-term strategy, and were not going to fulfill their obligations.
The policy of concern to aggressors led to the 30s to increase the foci of war and international tension.
In the fall of 1935 fascist Italy Began an aggressive condocent war against Ethiopia (Abyssinian). The Council of the League of Nations recognized Italy by the aggressor and made a decision on the application of economic and financial sanctions to it. But the backward and weak Ethiopia has become a light extraction of the aggressor. In the shortest seaways from Europe to Asia, another node of the military conflict was tied.
In July 1936, a military fascist rebellion broke out in Spain, at the head of which General Franco stood. A long civil war began in the country. The ruling circles of the West offered to adhere to the events in Spain "Non-interference policies". In words, agreeing with this, Germany and Italy supplied weapons and troops to General Franco, while the Legal Republican Government of Spain was subjected under the slogan of "non-interference" of the present blockade. Only the Soviet Union assisted the Spanish Republic to weapons, food, sent volunteers there. "Non-interference policy" contributed to the victory of rebels and establishing Franco's fascist dictatorship in Spain.
Gradually, the aggressors began to converge. In October 1936, the German-Italian Agreement on joint actions in international politics was signed. In November of the same year, Germany and Japan concluded the so-called "Anchikominean Pact". They were obliged to inform each other about the activities of the Comintern and to fight against the "International Communism". In 1937, Italy joined the Antico Minister Pact. The signing of the Covenant strengthened the position of aggressors, contributed to the preparation of the war for the redistribution of peace. The edge of the block was directed not only against the USSR, but also against the USA, Great Britain and France.
The main role in the Union of Agressors played Germany. By 1938, her armed forces grew so much that she was able to switch to the violent crossroads of the Central European map. The policy of territorial seizures was carried out under the slogan of the unification of all Germans as part of a single state. This slogan has already justified itself during a plebiscite on the belonging of the Saaric region. The Saaric region is 15 years old under the control of the League of Nations. After this period, it departed to Germany in accordance with the results of plebiscite (1935). In March 1938, Hitler's troops, hiding behind the slogan of the unification of the Germans in a single state, invaded Austria and occupied it. A few days later, this country was included in the German Reich. This accession (in German anchlus) was violent and was an act of a gross violation of the Versailles. The governments of Western countries were limited to the verbal protest and did not support the USSR offer to convene an international conference to organize aggressors.
Such behavior of aggressors has become possible due to the passive, expectant policy of European states and the US neutrality. The leading western policies stated that their main goal is to prevent the war, even if the concessions of the aggressors (the so-called deformation policy). In the US, a law on neutrality was adopted, which forbade the sale of weapons and military materials to the warring parties, without making differences between the aggressor and the victim of the attack.
Impunity encouraged Germany to new captures. She demanded the transfer of Czechoslovakia to her, in whose territory a German national minority lived. To solve this issue in September 1938, the conference of the heads of the Government of Four countries took place in Munich: Germany (Hitler), Italy (Mussolini), England (Chamberlain) and France (Daladye). She entered the story as Munich Credit, or Munich Transaction. On it, Western circles solved the fate of Czechoslovakia. The sudden region was transmitted to Germany. Due to Czechoslovakia, territorial claims were satisfied with the bourgeois landlords of Poland and Hungary. Under the British and France, the Government of Czechoslovakia adopted the Munich Agreement, without contacting the Soviet Union (according to the terms of the Soviet-Czechoslovak agreement, 1935, assistance could be provided only after the request for her and with the participation of France). The Munich transaction was aimed at insulation of the USSR in the international arena and to pushing the Hitler's aggression to the East. By the summer of 1939, an increasingly obvious error in the politician of the appearance of aggressors was becoming. In March 1939, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist as an independent state, was dismantled for individual areas, in one degree or another subordinates of Germany. In April 1939, Hitler announced the termination of the Polish-German Non-Space Treaty. Italy and Germany refused all previously concluded agreements and openly burned the war in Europe. March 23, 1939
Under the influence of these events, the public opinion of England and France has changed in favor of a decisive opposition of aggression. Governments of these countries announced the guarantees of the independence of Poland, Romania, Greece, joined negotiations from the USSR on the possibility of cooperation. The position of the USSR in the international arena was extremely important. With the USSR Union with England and France, a powerful block against the aggressor would be created. Having opposed them together with Germany, the USSR would create a critical, hopeless situation for them, would facilitate the actions of Germany in the West. Even the neutrality of the USSR could be different and in different ways to influence the development of events. The USSR suggested that England and France cooperation in the fight against aggressors. However, the neglected negotiations revealed a large mutual distrust, began to delay. Western partner fluctuations led to the fact that the Soviet leadership parallel to rapprochement with Germany so as not to be in isolation. On August 12, 1939, the negotiations of Anglo-Franco-Soviet military missions began in Moscow. But on August 17, they were suspended, and Soviet-German negotiations at the level of foreign ministers were intensified. On August 23, 1939, the Soviet-Hermann Treaty was signed (Molotov - Ribbentrop Covenant) about non-fire. It consisted of the main text and secret addition - a protocol in which the spheres of the influence and interests of Germany and the USSR were distributed. The sphere of interests of the Soviet Union includes the Baltic Republic, Romania (claimed the claims of the USSR on Bessarabia). The boundaries of the influence of the USSR and Germany were installed in Poland along the rivers of Nariav, Vistula and San (Western Ukraine and Western Belarus went out to the USSR). It was not just a contract, but a contract of two dictatorships on the future separation of territories. He accelerated the unleashing of World War II, providing Germany's neutrality of the USSR.
Thus, the contradictions between European states and their mutual mistrust prevented the creation of a system of collective security. Fascist aggressors got the opportunity to unleash the war for the redistribution of peace.
1) In the late 1920s. The international situation of the USSR has deteriorated. This was caused by the anti-Soviet focus of the foreign policy of the Conservative Government of the UK. Back in the mid-20s at the International Conference in Locarno (Switzerland), where the USSR was not invited, England, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland concluded a number of mutual agreements. They guaranteed the inviolability of the Western neighbors of Germany and said nothing about the eastern. Moscow regarded these agreements as directed against the USSR and insisted on signing with Germany in 1926 a neutrality and nonsense agreement. Later, Churchill's government accused the USSR in anti-British propaganda in India, supporting the revolution in China and threatened the gap of diplomatic relations. None nor the other side went on a compromise, the wave of mutual accusations increased. The result of these provocations was the gap of England of diplomatic relations with the USSR. They were renewed only on October 3, 1929, when Laborists came to power in England.
2) an important direction of Soviet foreign Policy In the late 20s. There were efforts to limit the growth of weapons in the world. In 1927, the Soviet Union was submitted to the League of Nations a proposal for immediate full and universal disarmament, later - the Convention on Arms Reduction and joined the Agreement on the Prohibition of Military Application of Chemical and Bacteriological Weapons.
3) In 1931, a neutrality agreement with Germany was extended. The Soviet Union signed a number of bilateral non-aggression treaties and a peaceful settlement of conflicts with Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, France, Italy. In 1933, diplomatic relations were established with the United States.
4) In 1934, at the invitation of a number of states, the USSR joined the authoritative international organization - the League of Nations and received a permanent place in the Council of the League of Nations.
5) The international situation complicated with the coming to power in Germany in January 1933 of the fascist regime headed by Hitler. In December 1933, the Soviet government proposed to create a collective security system in which the aggressor state had to resist all European countries. The USSR proposed to sign the Convention on the Definition of the Agressor. Leading capitalist states refused to sign such a convention.
6) Western powers in the mid-30s officially entered the path of the peace of fascist Germany. Formally, they protested about each aggressive aspiration of Hitler. We practically did not take a single step on curbing the aggressor. The hidden goal of Western democracy was to send the Hitler Military Machine against the USSR. On May 3, 1935, an agreement was concluded between France and the USSR. A little later, a similar agreement was signed between the USSR and Czechoslovakia. Contracts provided assistance, including limited military, in the event of an aggressor attack. However, the contracts did not provide for the automatism of the obligations of mutual assistance, the military convention on the forms, terms and sizes of military assistance was not concluded, and in addition, in the Soviet-Czechoslovak Agreement, assistance from the USSR was concluded from the provision of similar assistance from France.
7) An important role in the prevention of Hitler's aggression could be played on mutual assistance between France and Czechoslovakia (1936). But at the insistence of France and this agreement was made of a reservation: in the event of a threat of aggression, Czechoslovakia's assistance from other states could be provided only if France is also provided. Soon this reservation and the indecision of the Czechoslovakian government facilitated the Hitler's aggression.
8) In 1938, the Munich Agreement was signed, which became the crown of the policy of pacification. He was signed by Prime Ministers of Great Britain and France, as well as the dictators of Germany and Italy. From Czechoslovakia, 20% of its territory was rejected. And in the spring of 1939, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist as an independent state: the Czech Republic was entirely departed to Germany, and Slovakia turned into an abusive puppet of Berlin.
9) International Position of the USSR on the eve of World War II
1. In 1937, Japan captured part of China. After a number of provocations on July 29, 1938, the Japanese troops invaded the Soviet territory in the area of \u200b\u200bLake Hasan near Vladivostok, but having elapsed, the Japanese group was removed. In May 1939, Japanese troops invaded Mongolia. Parts of the Red Army under the command of Zhukov defeated them in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Khalkhin Gol River.
2. In the heavy international situation in the spring of 1939, the Soviet-English-French negotiations began. The Soviet government proposed to conclude an agreement on mutual assistance between the three countries in the event of aggression in Europe for a period of 5-10 years. But the Government of England and France wanted to receive one-way guarantees from the Soviet government, without taking any obligations. Negotiations were dragged and, in the end, were torn.
3. May 3, 1939 M. M. Litvinova, as a People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs, changed V. M. Molotov, reflected this to reorient the foreign policy of the Soviet leadership towards rapprochement with Germany in case of failure of Soviet-English negotiations.
4. August 23, 1939, when military negotiations were continued with England and France, the Soviet-German treaty (Pact) on non-fire was concluded in Moscow. A secret protocol on the demarcation of spheres of influence in Eastern Europe was attached to him. According to the protocol, Berlin recognized the "sphere of influence" of the USSR of the Republic of Baltic States, Finland, the eastern part of Poland and Bessarabia.
5. September 1, 1939 Germany attacked Poland. The United Kingdom and France declared war in Germany. The second began world War.
Ticket number 17.
Culture of Russia 17th century.
Political and economic changes that occurred in Russia were marked by the flowering of culture. The main feature of the new culture is a departure from religious canons and appeal to the values \u200b\u200bof human being and human personality.
In 1634, the first printed Russian letter of Vasily Burtseva was published, in 1648 "Grammar" of the Rotsen MeloTius. In 1679, a new printed alphabet appears.
In 1665, a school was opened in the Syaconoscope Monastery in Moscow, which was opened by the School for state institutions, in 1680 - a school at a printed courtyard.
In 1687, on the initiative of Sylvester Medvedev, the Slavic Greco-Latin School is created (from 1701 - the Academy), which became the first higher educational institution of Russia. Dissemination of literacy in the submission environment in every way was encouraged by the government. The scientists and monks for teaching both secular and spiritual sciences began to be invited to Moscow.
In the 17th century new literary genres appear. Satyric household stories are created: "The story of the Yersh Ershovich", "Tale of Shemyakin Court", in which land orders are criticized. The breakdown and sinful being of the monks of the Kalyazinsky monastery is ridiculed in the story of "Capyazinskaya Magnifying".
Simeon Polotsky founded two new genres - poetry and dramaturgy. He is the author of the first poetic works and plays, which were set in the first court Russian theater founded in 1670 at Queen Alexei Mikhailovic.
One of the literary flows of that time is populizing. His representative - Protopop Avvakum, the founder of the biographical genre. In the polemic work of the "Life of the Avvakum Protopopa", he was a simple spoken language about the dramatic history of his life.
In the 2nd half of the 17th century, the first portrait images with elements of real similarity appear. Space portrait painting is born.
In Russia, S. Ushakov, a portrait of portrait painting in Russia, worked at the Kremlin's Armory Chamber. In 1668 he writes the icon "Our Lady Vladimirskaya" or "Tree planting russian state", Where the most outstanding figures of his era are depicted.
Significant changes occurred in architecture and urban planning. Along with the creations of the masterpieces of wooden architecture, cult builds in Kolomensky and in the Russian north, the number of building built from stone is significantly increasing.
In architecture, the 17th century is planned rapprochement of a cult style with civilian. A style appears, which arose when the Russian architecture and Western European baroque - Moscow or Naryshkinskoye Baroque appears.
The characteristics of the Russian architecture of this period is a multi-tiery, symmetry of compositions, color decor. Examples of this style-Cellic intercourse in the films (1693) and Savior of the delicate in Uborakh (1697). In civil architecture, the main focus was the construction of the first stone buildings of domestic destination - Living room courtyards in Moscow and Arkhangelsk, Sukhareva Tower in Moscow, Togehany Chambers in Pskov.
The economic and military needs of the centralized state led to the development of science and technology.
Russian craftsmen are mastering science and technique. They are characterized by extensive theoretical knowledge. The proof of this is the "Charter of Rattaya, Cannon and Other Affairs", the Anisia Mikhailov, which is described in 1621, in which knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry is presented.
Geographic science is actively developing. In 1643-1653 The expeditions of V.Poyarkov, S.Dezhneva and E. Khabarova on the development of new territories took place.
The world economic crisis aggravated international relations and led to the emergence of focal war. Unlike the eve of the First World War? In the 30s, the only number of states sought to war.
This provision made renal capability to eliminate the threat of war in the context of the joint actions of the entire community. The development of international relations of the 1930s should not be considered as one-way idea, aimed at the preparation of a new war, but the general trend of development of the Versailles-Washington system of international relations was specimal. As the conflict deepening and deepening, which each time broke out in the ages of 19th, the desire of participants grew to solve them by compromises, an orevindalization of their will.
There is no doubt that at the beginning of the 30s, despite all the sharpness of the crisis, it is unlikely that some of the then politicians would decide to assert that a new, even more large-scale world war can break back. By the long time, politicians were disturbed by questions that foreign policy pursues are possible at least to soften the nslidki crisis.
The greatest taste of the ability of the world community to act together the economic crisis. She was world and supplied to all countries to task for their efforts to overcome it.
Reality on this way, then leading politicians have seen in a decrease in military trafficking (this was assumed by reducing weapons and armies or the creation of an existence of international security, which would have made unnecessary significant military spending) and facilitate the financial burden of reparations and debts.
In January 1930, an international conference on the limitation of shroudsbrene opened in Lenoni. It was attempted to extend the conditions for "Pietpänti Treaty" to other classes of combators: cruisers, destroyers, submarines. In full, this issue of the decision of osati fails: France and Italy refused to sign an agreement. USA, England, Japan-jumped about cruisers and destroyers to comply with the ratio of 5: 5: 3. Relevant submarines, the principle of equality of fleets was introduced.
In February 1932, after a long preparatory work in Geneva, a conference on rosebrés was finally closed. From the very beginning, SDM cells had a significant difference in approaches to this problem. So, FranceSutschtala, that the decision of the International Army by the Boarding of the League of Nations should be preceded by solving the issue of rosebrés. Her main opponent Germany demanded the elimination of the alliations of the Versailles Agreement. England was primarily interested in the problems of liquidation of the fact boats and chemical weapons. The USA with the reduction of land. The USSR demanded to put on the agenda of the conference the question of allobreak-free or proportionally gradual. Italy, offered for a start on the anniversary of the moratorium on the extension of weapons. Japan as a preliminary provision of recognition of its special role in the Far East and in the Pacific Pool. Thus, each of the great powers thought not so much about the decision of the conference, but before getting one-way benefits. This will determine the result of the conference: it ended with nothing. Attempts and attempts to streamline affairs in international finance.
USA B1931 was offered to declare a moratorium for one year on the payment of debts of Ireparations. This proposal was made. In 1932, it was decided to eliminate German reparation obligations. Debtor countries, sides, simply ceased to pay US debts.
It seemed that a precedent of collective action was created in the face of a common threat.
Nopery at the same time, the United States introduced high customs taxes, and the United Kingdom refused the "Golden Standard", the free exchange of pounds of sterling on the golden fixed exchange rate and tried to establish such an exchange rate of the pound, which was able to export English goods. Such actions of the United States and the United Kingdom were awarded the customs and currency "wars", disorganized worldwide and even more crisis. In London, the global economic conference was convened in London. The problems of stabilization of currencies and the development of ways of revitalizing trade were neglected. It ended to no avail. The desire of solve economic problems won, but for a one, when each country tried to try the burden of the crisis on a neighbor. As a result, an economic rivalry increased in the possibility of providing general resistance before the threat of war.
Between Temkin, lively discussions were walking on a variety of international Forums, with `appeared state, Kakybyli are ready to go on a layer of the existing system of international relations and the establishment of hegemony in the world.
2. Sign of war in the Far East
The first time of war arose in the Far East. In 1927, the Emperor's Prime Minister in the memorandum in the memorandum of the Emperor outlined the program of territorial conquests by the Nada-East and the destruction of the power of the USA in the Pacific Ocean. Said1931 Japanese troops occupied the territory of Manchuria - an important intensegic and economically part of China.
The manchuria attacked after a provocative explosion on the railway near the railway, which was built by the Japanese on September 18, 1931, for several months, the entire territory of Manchuria was occupied, although the number of Japanese armisa service was 14 thousand people, while Chinese - 100 thousand people. Civilistized by the presentation of the complaints in the League of Nations.
The northern territory of the Northeast China, the Japanese in 1932, the creative science state of Manzhou, appointing it by the ruler of the lastgogokaysky emperor Pu I.
Justifying aggression? Japan declared the threat of the penetration of the USSR into the Ethoregion and as an example was the Sino-Soviet conflict of 1929 and the Pidrimkovet Union of Chinese Communists.
Japan's Taxed Animation prompted global community Take appropriate measures. League of Nations at the request of Kitarazdala Special Commission to study the problem. The Commission recommended that Japanese troops and transfer to Manchuria under international control. Napoyania was not condemned as aggressor. The League of Nations stated that Manchuria was an integral part of this and did not recognize the manzhou. In response, Japan in 1933 Dondivally released from the League of Nations. The sanction under Japan provided for this case was the introduction of incomplete. The United States and British conclusions between Japan and China compromise: Japan is derived for troops from Shanghai, and China recognizes the Manchou. The first precedent of impunity is appeared.
3. AggressionItalia against Ethiopia
In 1935, Italy took advantage of this precedent. Did she believed herself depriving results of the First World War and did not hide the grippers? Cotors included the intentions of the conquest of Ethiopia.
From October 1935, the 250-thousandthitalian army, armed with aviation and tanks, broke into the territory of Ethiopia. Ethiopian army-blocks stubborn resistance. But the forces were unequal. The League Council of Nations declared an ItalyAugressor and obliged all members of the Organization to apply economic transactions to it. These measures were ineffective. The United States and the United Kingdom will declare and refused to supply Ethiopia modern military technique. The sacrifice and aggressor were delivered for one step. In 1936, Italy announced the conquest of all Ethiopia. She was accounted for Eritrea and Italian Somalia in Italian Eastern Africa. The Efiopian people unfolded the partisan struggle against aggressors, which killed the country's liberation with the help of the British in 1941
4.Gressiveness of Germany. Liquidation of the Versailles system
After orders to power, Hitler Germany joined the group of aggressive states. K1933 The position of Germany in the framework of the Versailles system was significantly easy. She stopped paying reparations. In negotiations on disarmament1932, she was promised equality in service. At the official level, the question of the return of Germany colonies was discussed. An important step in the further elimination of the Versailles system was the signing of the Mussolini "Covenant of Consent and Cooperation" to Mussolini, France, Italy and Germany. This pact provided for widespread states on the revision of the Versailles system and legal rusting the equality of Germany in service. However, the ratification of this contractual is torn.
Forgitler, the revision of the conditions of the Versailles Agreement was only the first step on the Pathimir domination. The second step was to be an association of all Germans by the Water State, and this assumed the accession of Austria inhabited by the Germans of Riendrancia, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Lithuania. The third step should be the conquest of "living space" in the East. Eastern European and agricultural resources of Eastern Europe, Germany, according to Hitler, will be able to win in the struggle for world domination.
Such, each of the steps defined by Hitler meant no longer just a viewing system, and the path to full elimination and indigenous changes on the international relationship? who have developed. It was a way to war. Hitler's dedicative intentions became the exit of Germany from the League of Nations in October 1933.
B1934 An attempt was made to attach Austria. On the way of joining Stalaitalia, which threatened direct military intervention. Hitler temporarily retreated.
1935The turns out. After the payment of France compensation for coal mines, the land of the Saaraview of Plebiscitus went to Germany. Germany abandoned the artistic agreement, which forbidden to have military aviation, declared the envoying of the universal military service and the formation of an army of 36 divisions.
In 1935, the Military Agreement was concluded in 1935. According to this agreement, the maker was allowed to increase the tonnage of the German fleet 5.5 times and build the shipping boats. Thus, Germany was allowed to have a fleet larger, Chephrantsuz. The agreement was already a bilateral violation of the Versailles system.
The fact of the events began to disturb the nearest neighbors of Germany. European auditism began to actively discuss the creation of a collective security system. In 1934, the USSR was adopted by the Vligation. In May 1935, the USSR and France concluded an agreement on mutual assistance. Analogy agreement was concluded between the USSR and the ChSR. Under the contracts of the parties obligations provided by providing assistance. However, the ratification of this contract France delayed, using the very fact of signing a contract as a means of pressure to Germany. Nazapada was still sufficiently stable anti-Soviet moods. Understanding this, Hitlemonded on decisive actions: In March 1936, the German troops were introduced by the Rhine Demilitarized Zone. Neither England nor France applied to all over the measures.
In Germany, there was an increase in the production of arms, a programming of synthetic gasoline and rubber was carried out, which would reduce the dependence of the country of the ETMPT. Sloated preparation for war.
Such, created after the First World War, the imperfect European security system was liquidated.
5. Creation of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo block
The common interests of Japan, Italy, Germany quickly led them to rapprochement. November 25, 1936 Germany and Japan signed an anti-companies in the Covenant, and Italy joined it. 1937. "Axis" was formed by Berlin-Rome Tokyo. The parties were obliged to inform each other about the company's activities and lead the joint struggle against him. In addition to the Treaty of Dalibing in the event of a war, one of the parties from the USSR does not do anything that could be easily elected the position of the USSR.
Like the aggressors was not monolithic. Germany and Italy competed in Austria, IBE claimed hegemony in the Balkans, before they managed to negotiate the spheres of influence in this region. Then Germany is the sign waiting for Italy Ethiopia. After that, Germany and Italy have evaluated their policies and jointly conducted a number of international shares. B1936 they supported the rebellion of nationalists in Spain, which led in 1939 to the power of F. Franco.
The relationship between Germany and Japan developed more difficult. They complicate that Japan seized the German colonies in the Pacific Ocean and China and did not intend to surgery. Germany and Italy during the Japanese aggression 1937 Anti-Thaw sold weapons to the Chinese government. Both countries were far from each other and sought to preserve the freedom of action in their sphere of interest.
Cercedins of the 1930s Germany, Italy and Japan have become on the path of direct disruption of post-war settlement. Over the entire Versailles-Washington system of the threat. Alternative to her was proposed by Germany, Italy Iyaponia based on the domination of the "New Order" forces, which made the section of the world between these states. The path to a new order went through the war.
International Relations and Foreign Policy of the Soviet Union in the 20s - 30s
Essay of Student Moochalova A.V.
Moscow Automobile and Road Institute (State Technical University)
Department of History and Cultureologists.
Moscow 2005.
1. The position of the republic after the civil war.
The world and civil war inflicted a huge blow to the welfare of Russia. The total loss of the population, starting in 1914, exceeded 20 million people. 1 millions of disabled and street children aggravated the situation. Environmental losses were also tremendous. They amounted to more than a quarter of the pre-war wealth of the country (over 40 billion gold rubles). 2 Industrial production decreased in 1920 compared to 1913. at 7 times 3 Agricultural production declined for the war years by a third.
The rupture of economic ties between the city and the village, the economic destruction, a two-year drought (1920 and especially 1921) aggravated the food issue. Strong hunger swept the south of Ukraine, Crimea, North Caucasus, South Urals, especially the Volga region. According to official data, more than 1 million people died from hunger and epidemic (typhus, malaria, etc.); According to modern historians - about 8 million (about 6% of the population). four
In February 1922, the Central Executive Committee adopted a decree on the withdrawal of all church values \u200b\u200bfor the purchase of food hungry. This caused a protest of the Russian Orthodox Church. Patriarch Tikhon called the decision of the Soviet authorities by the sacrifices: the church agrees to the "free sacrifice", but against the withdrawal. Repressions collapsed to the church. In April-July 1922, several dozen most active opponents of the requisition were convicted at the Moscow and Petrograd church processes. Of these, 9 people were shot.
Deep economic and, above all, the food crisis aggravated the social situation in the country. The peasant discontent with the Sprivant was resulted in a wave of anti-Bolshevik uprisings, in which only about 150 thousand people took part in the RSFSR. 5 peasant uprisings swept the average Volga region, Don, Kuban, Western Siberia. The most largest rebellion under the leadership of Esra A. Antonov in Tambov and Voronezh provinces.
Dissatisfaction of the city was expressed in working strikes Stop1921. On February 24, 1921, in Petrograd, the strikers organized an anti-Soviet demonstration, for the suppression of which military units and military cadets were thrown on the orders of the chairman of Petrosovta Zinoviev.
The discontent, the armed forces themselves resulted in the excitement of soldiers and sailors in some garrisons. They acquired an emergency danger in February-March 1921, when the largest naval base of the Baltic Fleet of the city-fortress Kronstadt was rebuilt. Sailors performed under the slogan "Power to Soviets, and not to Party!", "Tips without Communists!". The rising in Kronstadt was suppressed by troops under the leadership of Tukhachevsky. Kronstadt rebellion of V.I. Lenin compared with the "lightning", which illuminated "reality brighter than anything."
* 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Zagladin N.V. History of Russia and the world in the XX century Moscow " Russian word»2003.
For the conclusion of the country from the nationwide crisis, when maintaining power in the hands of Bolsheviks, the unity of party will was required. But the party itself was experiencing a crisis, which was expressed in the "Trade Union Discussion" (the end of 1920 - the beginning of 1921). It was about the methods of approach and forms of communication of the party and the state with the masses in the conditions of transition from the war to the world. The party leadership split into several fractions. The main factions of L.Dtretsky, "Working Opposition" (A.M. Kollodte and A.G. Shlipnikov), V.I. Lenin ("Platform 10"). Trotsky, from its left-wing positions, demanded to "spin nuts", to end with the remnants of the working democracy in production and transport, introduce military discipline there, to fully subordinate to the trade unions to the party and state leadership ("to nationalize trade unions"). His opponents, on the contrary, demanded to expand the working democracy, convey the management of the economy of the trade unions ("Obofluzhin State"). Lenin's position was the Centristian - Party and the state should not miss the main lever of the management of the national economy, and trade unions, deploying democracy in their ranks, should be a reserve of personnel and the economy management school.
The results of the discussion failed the X Congress of the RCP (b) (March 8-16, 1921). With the absolute majority of votes, he approved the Lenin Platform. At the same time, the congress, on the initiative of Lenin, adopted a resolution "On the Unity of the Party", in which prohibited in-party fractions and groupings. The unity of the party was considered as "the basic condition for the success of the dictatorship of the proletariat" The resolution adopted in extreme conditions contributed to the RCP cohesion (b) on the steep turn of history. However, in the next decades, she prevented the development of internal partare democracy, contributed to the separation of leadership from the party mass.
2. Foreign policy in the 20s.
The main directions of the foreign policy of the Soviet state and the Communist Party in the 20s began to strengthen the positions of the USSR in the international arena and distribution communist Movement in the world. The first contracts concluded in 1920-1921. With the border countries, they marked the beginning with a wide diplomatic recognition of the Soviet state. In 1922-1923 RSFSR took part in 4 international conferences: Genoese, Hague, Moscow, Lausanne.
2.1 conferences.
One of the sources of disagreements between the RSFSR and leading countries of Europe was the issue of debts of royal and temporary governments. In October 1921, the Soviet government agreed to make a number of concessions in the interests of small holders of Russian state loans, as well as to negotiate the pre-war debts, subject to the provision of the RSFSR loans and their recognition by the leading SNK countries proposed to convene an international conference to consider mutual claims. The proposal was interested in prominent figures of Western countries, primarily English Prime Minister Lloyd George. In January, they decided to convene the International Economic Conference in Genoa (1922), inviting Russia to her. The management of the RSFSR accepted an invitation. The fraternal republics requested the Russian delegation to submit common interests in Genoa. One of the main tasks set in front of the delegation was the establishment of economic and trade relations with capitalist countries. Western countries insisted that the Soviet government acknowledge all financial obligations of the Tsarskiy and temporary governments; Compensated for all losses incurred by foreigners from the nationalization of their property, and also abolished foreign trade monopoly. The Soviet delegation stated that there could be no question of the return of the former owners of nationalized property and the adoption of other requirements that would infringe the independence and sovereignty of the RSFSR. At the same time, the Russian government agreed to provide concession to foreign entrepreneurs and recognize pre-war debts subject to the damage caused by intervention. The member of the delegation of M. Litvinov called the amount of direct damage - 39 billion gold rubles, and taking into account the indirect - 50 billion 6 participants in the conference met these figures with a deaf ropot, and Lloyd George resolutely refused to understand them.
The conference in Genoa did not give practical results. But the participation in it RSFSR has become a step towards its legal recognition by countries that before that refused to have relations with the Soviet government. In addition, the indirect result of the conference was the conclusion in the suburb of Genoa Rappalo Soviet-German treaty. Rappale agreement provided a mutual refusal of the parties to compensation for military expenses. Germany refused claims in connection with the nationalization of foreigners in the RSFSR. The contract provided for the immediate resumption of diplomatic relations between the two countries, as well as the development of trade, economic and legal relations based on the principle of the greatest favorable. Going out from the Unified Front of the Western powers, Germany in the 20s became the ally of the USSR in the international arena, despite the attempt of the Soviet leadership to push it in 1922-1923. to the proletarian revolution.
* 6 Orlov A.S. Basics of the course of Russia of Russia Moscow "Spacious" 2001
The Genoese Conference formally interrupted its work to continue it in the Hague as a Commission on the Russian Question (summer 1922). At the conference, the Soviet side announced a list of enterprises of a number of industries, which were supposed to provide foreign concessionaires. But since the negotiating partners presented ultimate requirements for both debts and regarding foreign property recovery, the Delegation of the RSFSR actually interrupted the negotiations, and the second conference did not give direct results.
In Genoa, the Soviet government proposed to discuss the issue of universal disarmament. It was rejected. Then the RSFSR appealed to his Western neighbors - Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland and Poland with a proposal to discuss the proportional reduction in the armed forces of six states. This issue was devoted to the Conference in Moscow (December 1922). The Soviet government offered for 1.5-2 years to reduce the personnel of the army of the Conference countries by 75%, agreeing to reduce the number of RKKA to 200 thousand. 7 This and other offers The Government of the RSFSR considered as the first step towards universal disarmament, however, other participants in the conference after a number of discussions agreed to sign only the nonsense agreement, but not a general disarmament agreement, the Soviet side did not go to this Moscow conference had an important propaganda value as the first International Conference gathered in the territory of the Soviet state and dedicated to disarmament.
At the end of 1922, an international conference on Middle Eastern issues was opened in Lausanne (Switzerland). The Soviet country was invited to her to discuss a private question - about the Black Sea strait. At the final meeting of the Conference of the USSR, the conference in Lausanne was actually adopted without his participation, establishing an unimpeded passage through them both trade and military courts and demilitarization of straits. Thus, England managed to create a constant threat to the USSR from the side of the Black Sea
Since 1927, the USSR took part in the preparatory commission for the International Conference on Disarmament, scheduled in Geneva. The Commission was formed by the League Council in 1925 by the League itself was established in 1919 at the initiative of US President Wilson as a "peace tool worldwide." The Soviet Union was not her member for a long time "exposed" an imperialist policy of the members of the members of the League of Nations, but since the second half of the 20s he went on rapprochement with this largest international organization. For the first time, participating in the work of the IV session (November 1927), the head of the Soviet delegation, the Deputy People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs M.M.Litvinov, on behalf of the Soviet government, put forward the program of universal and complete disarmament: the dissolution of all armed forces; destruction of weapons; Elimination of the Navy and Air Force, Sea and Land Bases, Military Plants; termination of military training of citizens; Adoption of laws that cancel military service. The speech of Litvinova attracted public attention, but the leaders of the Western countries responded to him with refusal.
* 7 Orlov A.S. Basics of the course of Russia of Russia Moscow "Spacious" 2001
2.2 contracts.
Following Germany, by the mid-20s, the Soviet Union was recognized by the majority of the world leadership, including initiators of military intervention (except the USA).
On February 1, 1924, the Laborist Government (Prime Minister McDonald) declared the recognition of the USSR de Jure for the first time in the United Kingdom. The establishment of diplomatic relations with England was the largest success of the USSR foreign policy in the 20s. Financial mutual complaints (about losses from nationalization and intervention) were removed from the agenda indefinitely, a monopoly of Soviet foreign trade was recognized, for both countries, the greatest favored regime was established. In February 1924, the USSR established diplomatic relations with Italy (Premier Mussolini). Following this in 1924. The USSR was recognized by a number of other countries - Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Austria, Greece, Mexico, and others. In October 1924, the Government of the "left block" of France, led by Herrio, a convinced supporter of Franco-Soviet cooperation, established diplomatic relations with the USSR. 1924 entered the history of Soviet foreign policy as a year of the wide diplomatic recognition of the USSR.
In May 1924, diplomatic and consular relations of the USSR with China were established. The Soviet government has canceled all documents and agreements concluded by the Tsarist Government with China or with third countries to the detriment of China. The Sino-Eastern Railway (CR) was declared a joint commercial enterprise and was to be managed by two countries on parity principles. In January 1925, the USSR established diplomatic and consular relations with Japan. The Japanese government evacuated her troops from northern Sakhalin (captured during russian-Japanese war). The Soviet government provided Japan concessions in Northern Sakhalin, in particular, to operate 50% of oil fields. In 1924-1925 The USSR has established diplomatic relations with the twelve states of Europe, Asia, America. The USSR foreign policy isolation was completely eliminated. Only the United States rejected all Soviet proposals to normalize relations.
2.3 conflicts.
In the 20s of the USSR was involved in three international conflict (1923, 1927, 1929), which were reflected in his internal policy and the fate of NEP. In the spring of 1923 in Soviet territorial waters White Sea British fishing trawls were detained. In this regard, the British government published the "Ultimatum of Kerzon", demanding within 10 days to abandon the Soviet "anti-British" propaganda in the east, withdraw the Soviet representatives from Iran and Afghanistan, pay compensation for detainees and for the execution in 1920. english spy. At the same time, the canoner was sent to the sewn of English courts with the right to apply force, "if it is necessary." SNK RSFSR went to meet some requirements. At the same time, the working series of English Yurodov (Birmingham, London, etc.) threatened the government to the general strike, if it starts the war against the USSR. As a result, the conflict was exhausted by a diplomatic way. The short-term "military alarm of 1923" did not change the course of the internal policy, but contributed to the exacerbation of the first crisis of the NEP.
In May 1927, in search of "Agents of the Comintern", the British police took place at the London office of the Anglo-Soviet Cooperative Society (Arkos) accusing the USSR in interference in the internal affairs of England, the British government annulled the 1921 economic agreement and ruined diplomatic relations with the USSR. Again spoke about the proximity of the war. "Military Alarm of 1927" Before 1929, laborists who came to power in United Kingdom in November 1929 restored diplomatic relations with the USSR
However, over the years, the situation in the USSR has significantly changed by accepting irreversible forms. She aggravated in connection with the situation in Manchuria around the CER. After the coup carried out in China, the Commander-in-Chief of Chan Kai-Shi, China presented claims to the sole ownership of the road built by Russia. Claims were supported by provocations that entered the story as a "conflict on the CER". In May 1929, in Harbin ("Capital" of the CERE) was performed on the premises of the USSR Consulate General. Police searched for "Agents of the Comintern". 39 Soviet citizens were arrested. In July of the same year, the Chinese captured the CERE telegraph, the Soviet economic institutions were closed throughout the line, in the area expensive
200 citizens of the USSR. 8 By autumn, the number of Soviet citizens arrested and planted in the concentration camp exceeded 2 thousand people. 9 In August, Chinese troops switched to the Soviet border and invaded the territory of the USSR. On August 20, 1929, the USSR ripped relations with China. Parts of a special Far Eastern Army under the command of V.K. Blyuher was ordered to clear the territory of the USSR from the taxes. By November 1929, this task was performed.
* 8, 9 Orlov A.S. Basics of the course of Russia of Russia Moscow "Spacious" 2001
In the twenties, the activities of the Soviet Communists in the international arena intensified. It was carried out through a network of international communist, workers and peasant organizations. All of them depended on the Communist International, which on its III Congress (Moscow, July 1921) put forward the task of the speedy formation of communist parties, conquering them by the masses (the slogan "to the masses"), the creation of mass revolutionary organizations. These include: Communist International Youth (Kim, 1919), Trade Union International (Profintern, 1921), Peasant International (Captaintern, 1921), International Working Help (Interrapers, 1921), International Assistance Organization Wrestlers of the revolution (POPR, 1922). In many ways, thanks to these organizations, the USSR has achieved wide international recognition in the 20s. At the same time, the radicalization of their activities caused an increased alertness of the ruling circles of many countries to the Soviet Union.
3. Foreign policy of the 30s.
3.1 The international position of the USSR in the early 1930s.
The main purpose of the USSR foreign policy was to strengthen its political situation in the international arena and the expansion of economic ties. These goals of the USSR were able to significantly reach the mid-1930s; However, at the end of the Decade, the Soviet Union turned out to be actually in international isolation.
In the situation of the global economic crisis (1929-1933) to preserve foreign exchange earnings, the USSR government increased exports of its goods, reducing their price to a minimum. The USSR foreign trade policy caused in 1930-1932. For years, a sharp protest in many countries that accused the Soviet Union in the dumping, that is, exporting to the world market of goods in charge below their cost. In their opinion, this policy was provided mass application Forced labor in the USSR and it was she who led to the economic crisis in the West. In July 1930, the United States, defeated by the crisis of more than other countries, became the initiator of the economic blockade of the USSR. They banned the import of Soviet goods, began to delay Soviet cargoes. France, Belgium, Romania, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Poland, as well as England, joined the blockade, despite the reluctance of the Labor Government to exacerbate relations with Moscow. From major countries, only Germany did not join the boycott. She, on the contrary, sharply increased commodity exchanges from the USSR, becoming its main trading partner. At the same time, France made an initiative to "Association of Europe" against the USSR (plan "Pan-Europe"), that is, the creation of an anti-Soviet bloc of European states. Since the League of Nations did not support this initiative, the French government decided to push Poland, Romania and the Baltic states to pressure on the USSR. These countries have increased the supply of French weapons. Another reason for the enhancement of hostility to the USSR was solid collectivization, accompanied by the closure of churches and the references of the peasants, mainly Christians. In February 1930, the Roman Papa Pipe Xi announced a "crusade" against the USSR. In Western Europe and the United States in February-March 1930, mulabrats, rallies and demonstrations against the persecution of religion and Christians in the USSR took place.
3.2 Strengthening the international position of the USSR.
The adjustments of the Soviet foreign trade policy and the coming to power in the summer of 1932 in France of the left-radical government, headed by E. Errio, marked the beginning of the international situation of the USSR. In 1932, the Soviet Union concluded non-aggression treaties with Poland, Finland, Latvia, Estonia and France. In the same year, the USSR restored diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. In the autumn of 1933, the United States recognized the USSR, establishing diplomatic relations with our country. The normalization of Soviet-American relations has become the main success of the USSR foreign policy of the 1930s. In 1933-1935 Diplomatic relations were also established with the Spanish Republic, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and other countries. By the mid-1930s, the Soviet Union established diplomatic relations with most countries of the world.
In 1934, the 30 Member States of the League of Nations headed by France sent the invitation to the USSR to join this international organization. The introduction of the USSR to the League of Nations was evidence of its increased influence and authority. Not a world revolution, and the world disarmament was such a first major foreign policy initiative of the Stalinist leadership in the international arena.
At the International Conference on Reduction and Limiting Armaments (Geneva, 1932), the Delegation of the USSR headed by the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs M.M.Litvinov put forward three sentences: a project of universal and complete disarmament or partial disarmament, which provided for the complete destruction of the most aggressive types of weapons; Draft Declaration on the Definition of the attacker (aggressor); Transformation of the Conference on Disarmament to the Permanent "Conference of the World". None of these proposals was supported by the Geneva Conference. She graduated from its work in June 1934, having two main decisions in its asset - the recognition of German law on "equality" in arms and the plan of "high-quality disarmament" ("Plan McDonald"), which envisaged the limit figures of the land and air armed forces of only European countries. During the conference, two future initiator of the New World War - Japan and Germany were out of the League of Nations.
In turn, the USSR at the International Economic Conference (London, July 1933) signed the Convention on the Definition of Agressor with ten states. The aggressor recognized the state that will declare the war to another state, invades its territory without declaring the war, bombards its territory or establish a marine blockade.
The seizure of Japan's part of China - Manchuria (1931), the coming to power in Germany in Germany (1933), with their frank plans of the "campaign to the East", created a clear threat to the world. Under these conditions, the USSR was clearly interested in the formation of collective security systems both in Europe and in Asia. In 1933, he began negotiation on this issue with France and the United States.
3.3 The problem of collective security in the 1930s.
Negotiations on Eastern Covenant (1933-1935), who conducted the USSR, provided for the conclusion of a regional agreement of a number of European states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Baltic states) on mutual assistance against possible aggression of Germany. France insisted that the participants of the Covenant became not only the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, the Baltic states and Finland, but also Germany; She herself was striving to become the guarantor of the Eastern Covenant. The USSR agreed with this. However, negotiations went to the dead end and were actually minimized due to a decisive objection to the German and Poland's Covenant. The indirect result of the negotiations was two mutual assistance treaties concluded by the USSR and Czechoslovakia in 1935. At the same time, the contract with Czechoslovakia contained a significant reservation, according to which the obligations on mutual assistance operated only when providing simultaneous assistance to the victim of the attack by France. This clause of Czechoslovakia limited the possibility of the USSR to assist her in the event of an attack of the aggressor.
Negotiations on the Pacific Covenant (1933-1937), which the USSR, led from the United States, pursued the goal to keep Japanese aggression in the Pacific area. The project of the Covenant, put forward by the USSR, provided for its participants in the USSR, USA, China and Japan, i.e. Powers who had interests in the Pacific region. By mid-1937, negotiations finally entered a dead end due to the US refusal to support not only the plan, but also the idea of \u200b\u200bits creation. In June 1937, F. Arzhelt stated that "there is no" faith of faith. " The only guarantee of security in the Pacific Ocean, he considered the US Navy.
3.4 Fighting Japanese aggression.
In July 1937, Japan attacked China. In Asia began a protracted warrior. After a month, he concluded an aggression agreement with China. At the same time, he began to provide China with military equipment, weapons, ammunition, equipment. Soviet volunteers were sent to China, primarily the pilots who defended Chinese cities from the raids of Japanese aviation.
In 1938-1939. The Japanese government took two attempts to disrupt the Help of the Soviet Union in China and under favorable conditions to seize the Far Eastern Territories of the USSR. On July 29, 1938, Japanese troops invaded Soviet territory in the area of \u200b\u200bLake Hasan. As a reason, Japan put forward claims to a number of heights in the area. The troops of the Far Eastern Front (the Commander of the Marshal of the Soviet Union V.K. Blieur) by August 11, 1938 they threw the enemy and restored the state border. In May 1939, Japanese troops invaded Mongolia. Aggression "justified" by complaints about the territory of Mongolian People's Republic In the area of \u200b\u200bthe Khalkhin Gol River. USSR had a neighbor military assistance. The battles went with varying success, reaching the greatest fierce in the second half of August 1939. Soviet troops were combined into the 1st Army Group under the command of G. Zhukov. By the end of August, the Japanese troops were discarded in Manchuria; On September 15, 1939, in Moscow, the USSR, MNR and Japan signed an agreement on the elimination of the conflict at the Khalkhin Gol River.
In September 1940tg. Hergano-Japanese-Italian military pact was signed in Tokyo. According to him, Japan recognized the right of Germany and Italy to create a "new order" in Europe, and Germany and Italy - the right of Japan to create a "new order" in East Asia. At the same time, Soviet diplomats were able to make a conclusion with Japan's neutrality Covenant (April 13, 1941).
3.5 Anglo-Franco-Soviet negotiations 1939
In 1938-1939. Germany began its aggressive plans to "expand the living space". In March 1938, she occupied Austria, in September 1938, at the Munich Conference, it was achieved from England and France to the accession of the Sundayan region, the part of Czechoslovakia (Munich Credit). In March 1939, Germany seized the whole territory of Czechoslovakia. The Czech Republic and Moravia were attached to Germany as a protectorate, and in Slovakia, a puppet government was created. The Czechoslovak army without resistance was disarmed, its weapons and military equipment switched to the German armed forces.
In the context of the growth of military threat from Germany in Moscow in March-August 1939, Anglo-Franco-Soviet negotiations were conducted on the conclusion of a mutual assistance agreement. The stumbling block at the negotiations was the position of England and France, which sought unconditional joining the USSR war if they were aggression, they themselves stumbled their help to the Soviet Union near the conditions. Since the USSR did not have a common border with Germany, he was sought from partners to negotiate consent to the passage of his troops through the territory of Poland; Having received a refusal, the Soviet delegation on August 22 interrupted negotiations. The negotiation failure was beneficial in Germany, which was able to rip the triple anti-grand military union.
3.6 Soviet-German negotiations 1939
In May 1939, Germany announced the desire to improve relations from the USSR, if he does not go along the path of the "Environment" of Germany with England and France. August 23, 1939 in the Moscow Kremlin People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the USSR V.M. Molotov and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Germany, Ribbentrop signed a Soviet-German aggression agreement for a period of 10 years. He envisaged both a refusal of aggression against each other and from the support of third countries, in case of their attack on one of the Contracting countries.
On September 28, 1939, the USSR and Germany signed an agreement on friendship and borders. He envisaged the cessation of anti-fascist propaganda in the USSR and anti-communist propaganda in Germany, the establishment of a comprehensive relationship between the two countries and the establishment of the overall border passed through the territory of the defeated Poland (on the rivers of the West Bug and Narev).
The existence of a secret protocol to the non-aggression agreement with Germany has long been categorically denied by Soviet diplomacy and historical science. This led to the emergence of theories, according to which the USSR carries a significant share of responsibility for the unleashing of World War II. However, it is impossible to forget that the initiators of the course on the preparation of war were the fascist regimes of Germany and Italy.
Leaders of all countries like the USSR and the Western states, in the 30s. We underestimated the danger of fascism. This heavy burden fell on the shoulders of their peoples. In the summer of 1939, the last chance was really lost to put the barrier on the path of fascist aggression.
The obstacles were the attempts of the politicians of the Western countries to follow the course of the Decience of Germany, their distrust of the USSR. They pushed the Soviet Union to conduct a policy, which W. Churchill described as "coldly calculated" and "highly realistic".
3.7 Expansion of the USSR.
On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland.3 September France and England declared Germany. The Second World War began. In a short time, the Polish army was crushed, the Government of Poland fled to London. On September 17, the Red Army passed the Soviet-Polish border and by the end of September joined the USSR captured by Poland in 1920 western lands Ukraine and Belarus. Poland as an independent state ceased to exist. On September 28 - October 10, 1939, the USSR concluded contracts for mutual assistance with the States of the Baltic States, which envisaged the placement of Soviet garrisons and naval bases in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
In March 1939, the USSR offered Finland to conclude an agreement on mutual assistance. After receiving a refusal, in October of the same year he proposed to push the Soviet-Finnish border to the Karelian Isthmus for several tens of tens of kilometers, as well as to give the Soviet Union to rent a plot of Finnish territory at the entrance to the Finnish Bay to protect Leningrad. The government of Finland rejected this proposal. The Soviet leadership decided to achieve its foreign policy goals by force. On November 30, 1939, the 104-day Soviet-Finnish War began. The price of large losses, the Red Army only in February broke through a powerful fortification system ("Mannerheim Line") and rushed to the center of Finland and its capital. The leadership of Finland proposed negotiations, and on March 12, 1940, a peace treaty was signed between the USSR and Finland. Finland refused to participate in anti-Soviet coalitions, pushed the border on the Karelian Isthmus 150 km from Leningrad (to Vyborg), a number of other territories were transferred to the USSR, as well as the islands in Finnish Gulf, passed him for rent for 30 years Hanko Peninsula. Most of the affiliates were merged with the Karelian ASSR, which was transformed into the Karelian-Finnish SSR and included in the USSR for the rights of the Union Republic. The League of Nations condemned the USSR as an aggressor and in December 1839 excluded it from its composition.
In June 1940, the Soviet government accused the Government of the Baltic states in violation of the Pact on mutual assistance and introduced additional troops into the territory of the Baltic States. Military pressure of the USSR led to a change in the political situation in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. There were formed governments of the Soviet orientation, which proclaimed their republics of socialist and appealed to the Soviet leadership with a request to include them in the USSR. In August 1940, Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian Soviet Socialist Republics component parts Soviet Union.
At the end of June 1940, the USSR government sent Ulftimatum Romania, demanding urgently to bring troops from Bessarabia occupied in 1918 and from North Bukovina, where Ukrainians lived mainly. Without receiving support from Germany, the Romanian government was forced to satisfy the Soviet requirements. On June 30, the Red Army took the liberated territories by going on the river Prut. Bessarabia was attached to the Moldavian ASSR, which was transformed into the Moldavian SSR and included in the USSR as an allied republic. North Bukovina entered the Ukrainian SSR
As a result of the foreign policy activity of the USSR, its composition for the fall of 1940 grew up to 16 Union republics, the European Territory of the Soviet Union increased significantly. It created the conditions for strengthening the USSR's defense capability on the North-Western, Western and Southwestern borders. However, by June 1941, the new boundaries were not reliably fortified.
Bibliography
Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Polov A.Yu., Tereshchenko Yu.Ya. Basics of the history of Russia. Moscow "Spacious" 2001
Zagladin N.V. The history of Russia and the world in the XX century. Moscow "Russian Word" 2003
Electronic big soviet Encyclopedia in 30 volumes.
Encyclopedia for children. Volume 5 History of Russia and its closest neighbors. Part 3. XX century. Moscow "Avanta +" 2002
