Terrain as an element of a combat situation. All officers in modern conditions are required to be able to

CALCULATION OF LEARNING TIME (LESSON CONTENT)

P / p No.	Educational questions, their summary and methodological techniques	Time (min.)	Visual aids and teaching aids

1.	Introductory part
1) I announce the topic, the objectives of the lesson, educational questions, the order of the lesson. I instruct trainees on safety measures.
2.	Main part
Study questions: 1. Terrain as an element of the combat situation 2. The main types (varieties) of terrain and their tactical properties 3. Methods of studying the terrain 4. Study and assessment of the terrain in the offensive, in defense and during raid operations	25 15
	The final part 1) I sum up the results of the lesson, answer the questions, evaluate the actions of each of the trainees. 2) I give the command to end the lesson.

Lesson leader

__________________________________________________________________

(position, military rank, signature, initial of name, surname)

"___" _________ 20__

FGBU VPO "SIBERIAN STATE UNIVERSITY OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATICS"

Military department

APPROVED

___________________________

(position, ___________________________

military rank,

___________________________

signature, initial of name, surname)

"___" ________ 2017

EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL
FOR THE LESSON

Discipline: MILITARY TOPOGRAPHY

Theme: Terrain as an element of a combat situation

Terrain as an element of a combat situation

Terrain- that part the earth's surface... The totality of its irregularities is called relief, and all objects located on it, created by nature or human labor (rivers, forests, settlements, roads, etc.), are local objects.

Relief and local objects are mutually related. Thus, the relief affects the distribution of soil and vegetation cover, the configuration of hydrography and road network, the layout of settlements, and the soil in this case largely determines the nature of vegetation, the quality of dirt roads, and the depth of groundwater. Acting in various combinations, the relief and local objects in combination with the climate form various types of terrain, each of which in its own way influences all aspects of the military activity of troops. Therefore, the charters and manuals consider the terrain as one of the most important elements of the combat situation.

The influence of the terrain on the conduct of a battle is determined against the background of a combat mission, taking into account the subunit's weapons, time of year and day, as well as meteorological conditions and the nature of the enemy's actions. Terrain can contribute to the success of combat operations of its subunits and weaken the enemy, but not by itself, but only if the commander correctly estimates it and skillfully uses it in a specific combat situation.

When assessing the situation, the commander must: to study the general nature of the terrain and its impact on the actions of units; to establish the most probable directions of actions of aircraft, helicopters and other air targets of the enemy at low and extremely low altitudes; determine tank hazardous areas; choose the most advantageous positions for placing your fire weapons. Determining the plan of battle, the commander, in addition, must establish the most accessible directions of action of the subunits and areas of the terrain, the retention of which depends on the stability of the defense, the lines of combat missions of motorized rifle and tank subunits, the places of deployment of command and observation posts of subunits, ensuring the best observation of the terrain, the enemy. and the actions of their units, the most resistant to destruction local items that can be used as reference points.

Terrain properties influencing the organization and conduct of a battle, the use of weapons and military equipment are commonly called tactical properties. The main ones include terrain patency, its protective properties, conditions of orientation, observation, camouflage and firing. In some areas, the conditions of the terrain engineering equipment have a significant impact on the conduct of combat.

Terrain passability is a property of the terrain that facilitates or impedes the movement of units. It is taken into account when choosing the direction of concentration of the main efforts of the subunit, determining the width of the offensive front, the possibility and ability to use different types military equipment, as well as when organizing maneuvers, choosing routes for the supply of ammunition and materiel.

The main factor that determines the passability of the terrain is the road network. The more developed the network of roads and the higher their class, the more accessible the terrain for the actions of all types of troops. Paved roads allow traffic in any weather. The passability of unpaved roads is mainly determined by the nature of soils and grounds, terrain, season and weather conditions.

The role of the road network is further enhanced in wooded-swampy, desert and mountainous terrain where the movement of units off-road is extremely difficult. The importance of the road network increases sharply during the period of spring and autumn thaw. In such conditions, hard-surface roads acquire the importance of the most important areas along which the main efforts of subunits are concentrated, both in the offensive and in defense.

The terrain passability off-road is determined by its roughness. The terrain with ravines, steep slopes and cliffs, rivers and swampy areas, with large areas of woodlands, significantly reduces the passability of combat vehicles and automotive vehicles along it.

The approximate off-road speed depending on the steepness of the slopes in dry and hard ground is given in table. 1.2.
Terrain defenses are terrain properties that weaken the effect of damaging factors nuclear and conventional weapons. The correct definition and use of the protective properties of the terrain facilitates the organization of the protection of personnel and military equipment from the damaging factors of various types of weapons.

Table 1.2

Notes:

On moistened soils, the speed of movement decreases by 1.5 - 2 times,

The steepness of the slopes available:
- for a cross-country vehicle - 20-30 °,

For a tracked tractor with a trailer - 17-30 °,

For a tank - 30-35 ° (with short climbs of 5-10 m - up to 40 °).

Various shapes terrain can enhance or significantly weaken the effects of shockwaves, light radiation and penetrating radiation. Thus, on the forward slopes (facing the nuclear explosion) slopes of the uplands, the pressure of the shock wave increases markedly. On the reverse (in relation to nuclear explosion) on slopes, the damaging effect of the shock wave is significantly reduced. The degree of strengthening or weakening of the damaging effect of the shock wave on the personnel and equipment located on the slopes, in comparison with the open area, can be judged from the data given in table. 1.3.

Table 1.3

Orientation conditions- These are terrain properties that contribute to determining its location and the desired direction of movement relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding terrain objects, as well as relative to the location of friendly and enemy troops. They are determined by the presence on the ground of characteristic relief elements and local objects, which clearly stand out among other objects in their own way. appearance or position and easy to use as landmarks.

Observation conditions- These are the properties of the terrain, contributing to the receipt of information about the enemy. They are determined by the degree of the surrounding area being viewed, the viewing range and depend on the nature of the relief, vegetation cover, the presence of settlements and other objects that impede the view of the terrain.
The camouflaging properties of the terrain are the properties of the terrain that make it possible to hide the location and movement of personnel and military equipment from the enemy. They are determined by the presence of natural shelters formed by landforms, vegetation cover, settlements and other local objects, as well as general nature, color and spotting of the area (the more varied the colors, the better conditions disguise).

Rough terrain with forests and numerous settlements has good masking properties. So, hollows "ravines, ravines create favorable conditions for the shelter of the unit.

The most convenient natural shelters for units are forests. Their masking properties are determined mainly by the height of the trees, the closeness of the crowns, the composition of the rocks and the presence of undergrowth. The possibilities of camouflaging personnel and military equipment, depending on the density of the forest, are given in Table. 1.4.

Table 1.4

Conditions of firing- these are the properties of the terrain, providing a convenient and hidden from enemy observation of the location of fire weapons, accurate fire from small arms, guns, tanks, anti-tank weapons, mortars, as well as firing adjustments. They depend on the nature of the relief, vegetation cover, the availability of roads, settlements and other local items.

When determining the conditions for firing, they establish areas of the terrain that are not shot through by small arms and anti-tank weapons in the location of the enemy and their subunits, choose the most advantageous positions for firing from small arms and other fire weapons.

The conditions of the engineering equipment of the area depend on the type of soil, the level of groundwater, the availability building materials as well as the nature of natural and artificial shelters and obstacles. The condition of the soil largely determines the scope of work on the preparation of column tracks, equipping the main and reserve firing positions of artillery, on a fragment of trenches, trenches, shelters for guns, tanks, infantry fighting vehicles and other military equipment, erecting structures at command posts, shelters for personnel , technical means and objects of the rear. The presence of building materials on the ground (forests, crushed stone, gravel, sand, etc.) determines the volume and timing engineering works... The possibility of preparing water supply points and building various structures depends on the depth of the groundwater.

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URAL ORDER OF LABOR BANNER

MILITARY DEPARTMENT

TACTICAL PREPARATION

Yekaterinburg city

I. PLAN (sequence)

study topics.

TOPIC18 . LOCALITY AS AN ELEMENT OF A COMBAT SITUATION. Educational for educational purposes:

1. To acquaint students with the subject and tasks of military topography.

2. To study the requirement of combat manuals in relation to the study of the terrain.

3. To instill in students confidence in the actions on the ground.

TIME: 2 hours.

PLACE: Class.

METHOD: Practical training.

Educational - material support:

1. Layout of the area.

2. Overhead projector.

3. Codes.

literature

Textbook: "Military Topography" - Bubnov.

"Military Topography" - Nikolaev.

"Manual for the training of reserve officers"

EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS AND TIME CALCULATION

No. pp

Study questions

Time

Approx.

I. Introduction 5 min.

II. Main part: 80 min.

1. The subject and tasks of military topography.

2. locality and its meaning in battle. Combat demand

charters in relation to the study and use

terrain

3. The tactical properties of the terrain, its main

varieties and influence on the actions of units in

battle. Seasonal Tactical Mods

terrain.

III. Final part. 5 minutes.

II. METHODOLOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS.

To work out this topic by the method of storytelling with a demonstration of a layout of the terrain and simultaneous practical study of the terrain on a layout. The lesson is held in a classroom with a platoon of students .

INTRODUCTORY PART,

Accept the report.

Check the availability of students in class.

Announce the topic and learning objectives of the session.

1 EDUCATIONAL QUESTION .

The subject and objectives of military topography.

Post a tutorial question. Tell it element by element. Show on the terrain model. Ask 1-2 students about the layout, how they learned the material.

2 EDUCATIONAL QUESTION.

Terrain and its significance in battle.

The requirement of combat manuals in relation to

study and use of the terrain.

The teacher explains the question. Proving individual areas of the terrain. On the layout and on the educational map, it forces students to determine the degree of importance of a given area of the terrain for conducting various types of hostilities. Indicates mistakes to students. Summarizes the question.

3 EDUCATIONAL QUESTION

The tactical properties of the terrain, the main

types and influence on the action of units in battle. Seasonal changes in the tactical properties of the terrain.

The teacher explains the question. Shows individual areas of the terrain on the layout and on the training map. Students practically on the layout of the terrain, on the map give an assessment of the terrain in the indicated areas, Indicate to students on mistakes.

III FINAL PART.

1. Remind students of the topic and learning objectives of the session.

2. Point out deficiencies and announce ratings.

3. Write a task for S / P.

4. Answer questions.

EDUCATIONAL MATERIALS

I EDUCATIONAL QUESTION

SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF MILITARY TOPOGRAPHY

Terrain is one of the main and constantly operating factors of the combat situation, significantly influencing the combat activity of troops. Terrain features that affect the organization, conduct of a battle and the use of military equipment are called its tactical properties. The main ones include its patency and orientation conditions, camouflage and protective properties, observation and firing conditions.

Skillful use of the tactical properties of the terrain contributes to the most effective use of weapons and military equipment, secrecy of maneuvers and surprise of enemy strikes. Consequently, when performing combat missions, each serviceman must be able to quickly and correctly study the terrain and evaluate its tactical properties.

This is taught by a special military discipline - military topography, the subject of which is the methods of studying and assessing the terrain, orienting on it and making field measurements in the preparation and conduct of hostilities.

The character of the locality is determined by its relief, local objects and other geographic objects located on it. These elements are usually called topographic elements of the area.

The most important source of information about the topographic elements of the terrain - their relative position, coordinates, dimensions, outlines and other qualitative and quantitative indicators - are topographic maps.

A special group is made up of terrain data, the image of which is absent on topographic maps. These include various changes in the terrain - destruction, blockages, flooding, etc., as well as engineering structures - bridges, crossings, column tracks, barriers, etc., created by troops during the preparation for and during combat operations. These changes can significantly affect the tactical properties of the terrain, especially the conditions of cross-country ability and orientation. The main source of data on such objects, which are not depicted on topographic maps, are aerial photographs of the terrain made in the course of hostilities, and special maps.

Along with the use of maps and aerial photographs, the terrain is also studied by direct inspection and field measurements. Most often, such measurements have to be made when orienting, determining the location of targets and other objects, firing, etc.

Military topography as a military scientific discipline is an integral part of military science. In its development, it is most closely connected with tactics, with the theory and practice of topographic and geodetic support of military operations of troops, as well as with cartography and other related technical disciplines (geodesy, photo-topography, etc.).

Tactics, based on the nature and laws of combat, explores the forms of preparation and conduct of combat operations, it also develops the basic principles and most effective ways the use of terrain features when solving combat missions.

With the growth of combat capabilities and the constantly increasing saturation of troops with more and more advanced means of armed struggle, the requirements for study, assessment and methods of orientation on it change and increase, which, in turn, puts forward new requirements for maps, aerial photographs, as well as for technical means and methods of field measurements.

The theory of topographic and geodetic support, based on the modern nature of combat operations, examines the issues of providing headquarters and troops with topographic and special maps, geodetic data, as well as photographic documents containing information about the terrain. It defines the forms of preparation and methods combat use parts and sub-divisions of the topographic service.

One of the most important tasks of military topography is to find the most rational ways of working with maps (aerial photographs) in various conditions of a combat situation, effective methods of field measurements and timely make adjustments to the accumulated experience, using the achievements of tactics, theory of topographic and geodetic support. - studies, cartography, geodesy and other disciplines.

Hence, the method of military topography as a military scientific discipline used to solve this problem is, first of all, in the collection and study of the experience of using maps and aerial photographs, its analysis and generalizations based on the theoretical provisions of tactics on the influence of the terrain on the actions of troops and the use of combat technology.

The richer the experience, the more reliable the truth, the more effective the methods, principles and provisions disclosed by military topography.

II. EDUCATIONAL QUESTION.

1. RELATIONSHIP OF MILITARY TOPOGRAPHY WITH OTHER BRANCHES OF MILITARY SCIENCE.

The terrain as one of the elements of the combat situation is studied by tactics, operational art and other branches of military science, each of them in relation to its task.

TACTICS, for example, develops questions of the theory and practice of preparing and conducting combat operations by subunits, units and formations, while studying in detail the influence of the terrain on the organization and conduct of combat. Proceeding from this, she indicates the basic principles and the most effective ways of using the terrain in solving combat missions.

MILITARY ENGINEERING examines the terrain and its properties in relation to the tasks of engineering support for combat operations. It develops engineering methods and means of changing the natural conditions of the terrain, facilitating the actions of its own troops and hampering the actions of the enemy in every possible way.

MILITARY GEOGRAPHY comprehensively studies the conditions and capabilities of various countries and theaters of military operations, including the terrain. Studying the structure of the earth's surface, natural boundaries and obstacles, hydrography, road network and other important terrain objects, she presents specific data about them, which must be taken into account when preparing and conducting combat operations in the same area.

MILITARY TOPOGRAPHY uses data from tactics and other branches of military science on the influence of terrain on the actions of troops and on the use of various types of weapons and military equipment to develop issues of topographic training of troops and topographic and geodetic support of combat operations. The data developed by military topography, in turn, are used by other disciplines and branches of military science when solving issues related to the study and use of terrain.

2. PLACE AND ROLE OF MILITARY TOPOGRAPHY

IN THE SYSTEM OF COMBAT TRAINING OF THE TROOPS.

As an academic discipline, military topography is one of the most important component parts combat training of officers, sergeants and enlisted personnel of all branches of the armed forces.

In close connection with other subjects of troop training, especially tactics, firepower and engineering training, military topography equips commanders and soldiers with the necessary topographic knowledge and skills, the skillful use of which contributes to an increase in the combat activity of troops and the achievement of success in battle.

Many issues of military topography, for example, orientation on the terrain when troops enter, making field measurements during reconnaissance, preparing initial data for firing, etc., are organically included in the tasks of tactical, fire and special training of troops, which is reflected in the military charters and directions.

Thus, the topographic training of commanders and soldiers should be carried out not only in the classroom in this subject, but should be consolidated and continuously improved in the process of training in other disciplines, especially in field exercises and military exercises.

Combat operations can be deployed on any terrain, at any time of the year and in any weather. General instructions on the actions of troops in various terrain conditions are contained in the regulations and manuals. However, the charter documents cannot describe in detail the types and properties of the terrain, which commanders must take into account when conducting a battle.

III EDUCATIONAL QUESTION

I. TACTICAL PROPERTIES OF AREA.

The features of a given area that have a particular impact on the organization, conduct of a battle and the use of military equipment are called its tactical properties. The main ones include the terrain passability for combat and transport vehicles, its protective camouflage and other properties.

Tactical terrain properties:	The main topographic elements that determine the properties of the terrain.
1	2
Terrain passability	Roads, bridges and crossings, relief, soil, vegetation: the presence and nature of barriers and natural obstacles (rivers, ravines, swamps)
Masking properties	Relief, vegetation cover, especially forests, settlements: their importance as natural masks (closures) from ground and air observers; the presence and nature of hidden approaches, i.e. not observed by the enemy by approaching the designated points and objects of action.
Protective properties	Relief, forests, tunnels and other underground structures, solid (brick, stone, reinforced concrete) structures, especially basements; their importance as shelters from nuclear and other weapons.
Properties affecting orientation conditions	Separate local objects and characteristic relief elements, clearly distinguished from other objects in their appearance or location on the ground, are convenient for use as landmarks.
Properties affecting the conditions of observation and firing.	Relief, vegetation cover, especially forests and shrubs, soil; in settlements - the tallest and most durable buildings with basements, especially those located at the crossroads of streets and squares; the presence and nature of natural lines and areas dominating the surrounding terrain (command heights), the use of which provides the most favorable conditions for observing the enemy and firing, and in defense forces the advancing enemy to climb up the slopes.

2. TACTICAL CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF AREA.

Tactically, the terrain is usually subdivided:

a) According to the degree of its ruggedness and ruggedness by rivers, canals, lakes, gullies, and similar obstacles limiting the freedom of movement and maneuver of troops - into crossed (strongly, medium, slightly intersected) and non-crossed.

b) According to the degree of its closure by elevations of the relief and local objects (forests, groves, settlements), which make it difficult to view the terrain, form masks from observation and shelter from destructive means opponent - on open, half-closed and closed.

Typical examples of heavily rugged terrain are mountainous and high-mountainous areas, areas of highly developed ravine and ravine relief, characteristic of some steppe and forest-steppe regions, as well as lake-river areas.

The heavily-crossed terrain is marked by a dense network of insurmountable obstacles that significantly limit its accessibility not only for combat and transport vehicles, but also for units moving on foot. The presence of such obstacles requires the implementation of significant work on the engineering equipment of the area and the use of special means to facilitate their overcoming. Such terrain strengthens the defense and greatly complicates the offensive.

Rough terrain, replete with pronounced folds of the relief, is the most advantageous in terms of protection against nuclear and other types of weapons. It facilitates camouflage and makes observation difficult, especially on the ground. The more folds in the relief, the deeper and sharper they are, the more the terrain has the above properties, especially in the presence of forest cover.

Medium-rugged terrain, in contrast to highly-rugged terrain, also has a continuous, but more rare network of obstacles, most of which can be overcome without special difficulties on a caterpillar track.

The terrain with insignificant or rare obstacles, most of which is relatively easy to overcome by both tracked and wheeled vehicles, refers to slightly intersected.

The terrain of all these types can be open and closed to varying degrees.

More or less flat, treeless terrain, devoid of significant natural masks and shelters, belongs to the open. In comparison with other types, it has the least favorable camouflaging and protective properties. On such terrain, it is difficult to organize anti-nuclear defense, anti-tank and air defense, covert movement of troops, placement and camouflage of elements of battle formations. At the same time, the open area, providing a good outlook and shelling, contributes to an increase in the effectiveness of small arms and artillery fire. With the appropriate soil, it is almost universally available for all types of transport and combat vehicles, however, it is not profitable to attack or position for defense on an open plain, especially if the enemy is in more favorable terrain conditions. On such terrain, it is especially important for the movement and action of troops to use the night time and poor visibility conditions.

The closed area includes mainly forest areas that provide good shelter for troops and military equipment not only from ground, but also from air surveillance, as well as mountainous areas and areas with a dense network of settlements. On such terrain, the concealed movement and maneuvering of troops, the organization of anti-tank and air defense are facilitated, but orientation, target designation, the conduct of all types of fire and the interaction of troops are greatly hampered.

A semi-enclosed area refers to an area in which enclosed spaces make up about half of the total area.

Terrain

Relief

Settlements.

Road network.

Hydrography.

Vegetation cover

Soils called soil.

local items

Tactical terrain classification

Tactically, the terrain is subdivided:

According to the conditions of cross-country ability; according to the conditions of observation and camouflage; by the degree of ruggedness.

By passability conditions the terrain can be:

Traversable terrain almost does not limit the speed and direction of movement of tracked vehicles, allows repeated movement along the same track. The movement of wheeled vehicles of ordinary cross-country ability is somewhat difficult.

Difficult terrain available for the movement of tracked vehicles, but at a lower speed than on passable terrain. The movement of wheeled vehicles of ordinary cross-country ability is almost impossible. Difficult terrain has a negative impact on the speed and ability of movement of ATS personnel when they are performing service and combat missions.

Impassable terrain inaccessible for the movement of tracked and wheeled vehicles without work on the laying of column tracks.

According to the conditions of observation and camouflage, the area is subdivided:

Open area is a flat or slightly hilly treeless area, up to 75 % the area of which is clearly visible from the commanding heights in all directions.

Semi-enclosed area is transitional from open to closed. The area occupied by natural shelters is about 20% , from the commanding heights can be seen up to 50% area. Provides good disguise for police officers and criminals.

Closed area is an area covered with forests, shrubs, gardens, with often located settlements, with mountainous, hilly or flat relief. The area occupied by natural masks is 30% and more, and the area viewed from the commanding heights is less than 25%.

In a closed area, observation, orientation and target designation, control of ATS forces and means, and organization of interaction are difficult. The gated area is an ideal hideout for criminals.

According to the degree of intersection with ravines, gullies, rivers, lakes, ditches and other natural obstacles, the terrain is:

Rough terrain has a small number of natural and artificial obstacles, is easily overcome by combat and special equipment in any direction. Natural obstacles take less 10 % area. The relief is usually flat, less often hilly. The terrain provides a good overview and the use of technology in all directions.

Mid-rugged terrain has about 20 % area occupied by natural obstacles. On such a terrain, the massive use of technology is difficult. The relief is usually hilly, less often flat. Such terrain contributes to protection from the damaging factors of nuclear and conventional weapons.

Rugged terrain it is distinguished by a large number of impassable obstacles - mountains, ravines, gullies, rivers, canals, ditches and swamps. The area under natural obstacles is more than 30 %. It is characterized by mountainous regions, territories with ravine and ravine and valley-ravine relief. The use of technology is possible only in certain areas. Such terrain makes it difficult to conduct special operations and search for criminals.

Varieties of terrain.

By the nature of the relief, the area is subdivided:

On the plain; hilly; mountain.

Highlands in turn, it is subdivided into low-mountain, mid-mountain and high-mountain.

Depending on the land cover the terrain can be desert, steppe, forest, swampy, wooded-swampy. The terrain of the northern regions belongs to a special type. Let's consider the types of terrain in more detail.

Flat terrain characterized by the absence of pronounced irregularities of the earth's surface and small up to 25 m relative elevations and relatively small steepness of slopes - up to 2°. The absolute heights above sea level are usually up to 300 m.

The absence of significant relative elevations ensures sufficient visibility in all directions and the effectiveness of fire for all types of weapons.

However, the plain makes camouflage difficult. Its protective properties are minimal.

Plain terrain is usually more favorable for organizing and conducting a special operation to search and arrest criminals and less favorable for monitoring objects of operational interest.

Hilly terrain characterized by the wavy nature of the earth's surface, forming irregularities (hills) with absolute heights up to 500 m, relative excesses 25- 200 m and the prevailing steepness of the slopes 2-3 °. The hilly terrain also includes the small-sopochik, that is, a plain with randomly scattered individual hills and groups of hills and ridges. In such terrain, as a rule, there are many command heights with a long range of visibility and a wide field of view.

Low-mountainous terrain is characterized by altitudes above sea level 500-1000m, relative excesses 200-500 m and the prevailing steepness of the slopes 5-10 °.

Compared to other types of mountainous terrain, it is poorly dissected, well-populated and has a relatively developed road network.

With relatively gentle slopes and not high altitudes such a terrain is available for the actions of police officers, contributes to their camouflage and protection from damaging factors nuclear weapons... The use of heavy combat and special equipment is difficult.

Mid-mountainous terrain has an altitude of the order of 1000-2000 m, relative excess of about 500-1000 m and the prevailing steepness of the slopes 10 - 25 °. It is dissected into well-defined mountain ranges, ridges and chains, their tops and ridges usually have a smoothed shape.

This area has wide mountain passages that are used for road construction. These roads cross mountain ranges along the lowest passes accessible to vehicles. all year round or most of it. The use of heavy combat and special equipment in such a terrain is possible only in certain areas.

In general, the mid-mountainous terrain requires significant engineering work to ensure its passability. At the same time, it favors camouflage and protection against the damaging effects of nuclear weapons.

Alpine terrain characterized by heights above sea level 2000 m and relative excess 1000 m and more. The prevailing steepness of slopes in such an area, as a rule, is more than 25 °... The highlands are divided by deep valleys and hollows into mountain ranges, their peaks and ridges are usually sharp and covered with eternal snow and glaciers.

This area, as a rule, is poorly populated, has few mountain passes and a sparse road network. Roads are usually laid along narrow mountain gorges, pass through passes at high altitudes, abound with steep climbs and small turning radii. The passes are most often located above the snow line and are therefore closed for most of the year.

In general, high altitude terrain favors camouflage. In case of nuclear explosions, landslides and rockfalls are possible.

Desert terrain represents vast sparsely populated areas with a constantly or seasonally hot climate, insignificant water resources and very poor vegetation. Depending on the nature of the soil, sandy, stony and clayey deserts are distinguished. The surface of the deserts is flat, slightly rugged or hilly, with dry river beds. Vegetation is almost absent, growing grasses are rare and hard - saxaul, hodgepodge, wormwood. Salient feature deserts an acute shortage of water, fuel, building materials, lack of roads. Wells are usually found along highways and caravan routes at a great distance from each other. Their depth ranges from 5 to 200 m, debit 3-5 cubic meters per day. The water in the wells is of poor quality; its use for drinking is possible only after purification and boiling. Therefore, when planning and carrying out special operations in the desert, the chiefs of the ATS must take this into account and create increased supplies of water, food, fuel, and other material resources.

Steppe area characterized by the absence of woody vegetation, dry continental climate, chernozem and chestnut soils. The vegetation is sparse, mostly grassy (feather grass).

Separate groups of trees are found along river valleys, ravines and gullies. The steppe terrain is passable on and off roads for military and special equipment.

A forest area is a territory from above 50 % which is covered with dense woody vegetation - forests. The passability of the forest area depends on the availability of roads and clearings, the nature of the relief, density, thickness and species of trees.

Forest area provides good camouflage for both ATS units conducting special operation and criminals.

Marshland represented by significantly moist soils - peat bogs and wetlands. By location, nature of vegetation and diet, lowland, upland and transitional bogs are distinguished.

Lowland swamps are common in floodplains and river deltas, in lake basins. The surface of such bogs is covered with sedge, reeds, and moss. As a rule, low-lying swamps are impassable for tracked and wheeled vehicles. For pedestrians, passable on separate elevated sections.

High bogs are characteristic of watersheds, they feed on atmospheric precipitation... The thickness of the peat layer can reach 5 meters and more. The surface is convex in the middle, covered with moss, sedge and small shrubs - blueberries, wild rosemary. In the dry season, raised bogs in some directions are passable for the movement of tracked and wheeled vehicles, as well as pedestrians.

Transitional bogs are formed in lowlands; in their outward passability, they occupy an intermediate position between lowland and raised bogs. They are characterized by the presence of birches, pines, sedges, moss.

According to the structure, depth and degree of moisture content of the bogs are subdivided into peat willows, bogs and floats. Peat bogs have a large layer of peat up to solid foundation... Bog bogs have a small layer of peat, which is located on semi-liquid silt. Drifting bogs are a continuous carpet of aquatic and bog plants floating on the surface of a reservoir. The passability of swamps is not the same at different times of the year. Swamps are considered passable if they withstand the specific pressure given in technical characteristics each type of equipment.

Wooded marshland it is characterized by the alternation of large forest areas with numerous swamps, streams and lakes. The main feature of this area is a large number of natural obstacles and low cross-country ability for both vehicles and pedestrians. In the conditions of a wooded swampy terrain, the possibilities for observation, orientation and firing are limited, the organization of interaction and control of ATS units becomes more complicated

The terrain of the northern regions are vast areas adjacent to the Arctic Ocean. By natural features the arctic belt is divided into two zones: arctic deserts and tundra.

Arctic desert zone northernmost of natural areas... Its surface is constantly or most of the year covered with snow and glaciers. The relief is predominantly flat, sometimes there are hilly plateaus. The climate is very harsh, with low air temperatures, sharp weather changes, strong winds, frequent snowfalls and blizzards in winter and drizzling rains, fogs in summer. A significant part of the surface is covered with glaciers.

Tundra zone is a flat coastal plain, among which there are hills, mountain ranges and highlands. The surface is covered with permafrost, which reaches 600 m in depth. The vegetation cover is represented by mosses, lichens, dwarf birches. Winter lasts 8-9 months, polar night continues 60-80 days.

Summers are short (2-3 months) and cool (4-11 degrees above zero). Favorable conditions for movement in winter and autumn, summer and spring, the movement of equipment is limited.

Rice. 1. Topographic orientation on the ground.

Tactical orientation is carried out in order to clarify the position of armed groups of criminals (bandit formations), their special groups (units), neighbors, as well as to study the terrain. The leader (commander) conducts tactical orientation in the following sequence:

1. Standing with his face in the direction of finding armed criminals, shows the direction to one of the sides of the horizon (usually the side of the horizon is indicated in the direction of the unit's actions).

2. Determines his standing point relative to a pronounced landmark (local object). If a map is used for orientation, then the square of the coordinate grid is also indicated.

3. Shows from right to left characteristic local objects, landforms, indicates the direction and distance to unobservable objects.

4. Appoints (specifies) from right to left and along the lines from himself in the direction of the actions of armed criminals;

5. Shows the initial line to units and groups.

Topographic orientation can be used to report your position by means of communication in cases where there is no map or orientation on the ground is lost. For example: “I am on a mound. 2 km to the north - railway bridge; 900 m to the south-west - forest; 5 km to the south - a ruined rural settlement ”. According to the indicated landmarks (local subjects), the leader (commander) determines the location of the unit on topographic map... Therefore, in topographic orientation, the most characteristic areal and linear landmarks are selected, which can be easily and quickly found on the map. Terrain orientation can be general and detailed.

General orientation consists in an approximate determination of your location, direction of movement and the time required to reach the destination of movement.

Detailed orientation is the precise determination of your location and direction of movement.

Determination of directions to the sides of the horizon. Directions to the sides of the horizon are determined by the compass, celestial bodies and some signs of local objects.

Compass orientation. To determine the sides of the horizon, a compass is most often used. With the help of a compass, you can navigate at any time of the day and in any weather. The compass allows you not only to find the sides of the horizon, but also to determine the desired direction of movement on the ground and accurately maintain this direction on the way.

7. Determination of the sides of the horizon based on local objects.

If there is no compass and no celestial bodies are visible, then the sides of the horizon can be determined by signs of local objects:

In summer, the soil near large stones, buildings, trees and bushes is drier on the south side, which can be determined by touch;

Snow melts faster on the southern slopes; as a result of thawing in the snow, notches are formed - thorns directed to the south;

Forest glades, as a rule, are oriented in the direction "North - South" or "West - East", the numbering of forest areas goes from west to east and further to the south (Fig. 9);

Altars Orthodox churches, chapels and Lutheran pickaxes are facing east, and the main entrances are located on the west side;

Altars of Catholic churches (churches) are facing west;

The raised end of the lower crossbar of the cross of the churches faces north (Fig. 10).

Rice. 9. Determination of the sides of the horizon by a quarter pillar in a forest clearing.

Rice. 10. Determination of the sides of the horizon by the lower crossbar of the cross.

Terrain as an element of the operational environment

Terrain is a part of the earth's surface with all its elements. The main topographic elements of the area include: relief; settlements; road network; hydrography; vegetation cover; soil; industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural facilities.

Relief the sum of all the roughness of the terrain is called. It is composed of various elementary forms of various orders. There are large, structural forms of relief that form the surface of vast geographic regions - mountains, plains, highlands and less significant in size elementary forms of irregularities that make up the surface of these relief objects.

Settlements. Depending on the nature production activities population and the number of inhabitants, settlements are usually subdivided: into cities, urban-type settlements, settlements with industrial enterprises, railway stations, rural and suburban settlements.

The most important in the activities of the internal affairs bodies are cities, since it is in the cities that the bulk of the country's population lives, most of the crimes are committed in the cities, the main forces and means of the internal affairs bodies are concentrated in the cities. According to the number of inhabitants, they are divided into large - more than 100 thousand inhabitants, medium - from 50 to 100 thousand inhabitants and small - less than 50 thousand inhabitants.

Road network. This concept includes automobile, unpaved, railways and road structures. Highways can be paved - highways, improved highways, highways and unpaved - improved unpaved roads. The most significant influence on the movement of equipment is exerted by the width of the carriageway, the type of coverage, the values of the longitudinal slopes and turning radii, the presence and nature of road structures.

Hydrography. These are coastal strips and shores of seas, lakes and rivers; the seas themselves, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wells and other sources of water, as well as hydraulic structures. Hydraulic structures, in turn, include: ferry crossings, dams, locks on rivers and canals, dams, anchorages and marinas, jetties and piers, breakwaters and groins, as well as signs of navigation situation - beacons, luminous buoys, permanent signs of coastal signaling.

Vegetation cover... The vegetation cover is divided into several groups: woody - forests, groves, individual trees; shrub - various shrubs up to 4 meters high; semi-shrub herbaceous, mossy and lichen; artificial plantations - gardens, parks, plantations.

Soils... Soils are usually called the upper layer of the earth's crust several meters thick. The layer of the earth's crust is 1-1.5 m thick, has fertility and called soil.

Soils, in turn, are subdivided into rocky and loose soils. Rocky soils are monoliths of solid rocks - granites, basalts, sandstones. Loose soils are sands, peat bogs, black earth, clay, gravel, clay with gravel and pebbles.

Industrial, agricultural and socio-cultural facilities these include factories, factories, power plants, airports, mines, mining sites, oil and gas pipelines, etc., as well as various structures related to these objects.

Objects located on the ground and created by nature or human labor are called in topography local items... These include rivers, lakes, forests, gardens, settlements, roads, etc.

Relief and local objects are interconnected and complement each other. Thus, the relief significantly affects the distribution of soil and vegetation cover, the configuration of rivers, roads, and the layout of settlements. Soils, in turn, largely determine the nature of vegetation, the quality of roads, and the depth of groundwater.

Chapter 1

STUDY AND ASSESSMENT OF THE AREA

Table 1.2

Notes:

On moistened soils, the speed of movement decreases by 1.5 - 2 times,
The steepness of the slopes available:
for a cross-country vehicle - 20-30 °,
for a tracked tractor with a trailer - 17-30 °,
for a tank - 30-35 ° (with short rises of 5-10 m - up to 40 °).

The protective properties of the terrain are determined, first of all, by the nature of the relief, vegetation cover, and the presence on the terrain of various natural and artificial shelters capable of fully or partially providing the protection of subunits.
Various landforms can enhance or significantly weaken the effects of shockwaves, light radiation, and penetrating radiation. Thus, on the forward slopes (facing the nuclear explosion) slopes of the uplands, the pressure of the shock wave increases markedly. On the opposite (with respect to a nuclear explosion) slopes, the damaging effect of the shock wave is significantly reduced. The degree of strengthening or weakening of the damaging effect of the shock wave on the personnel and equipment located on the slopes, in comparison with the open area, can be judged from the data given in table. 1.3.

Table 1.3

Ravines, hollows, ditches, gullies, ditches and other depressions also weaken the effect of the shock wave if it crosses them in the transverse direction. In this case, the weakening of the damaging effect of the shock wave is the greater, the greater their depth and tortuosity and the smaller the width. Thus, the damaging effect of a shock wave at the bottom of a ravine 5 m deep and 5 m wide decreases 2.5 times compared to flat terrain, 1.5 times with a width of 10 m, and 1.3 times with a width of 15 m.
The protective properties of the area are largely determined by the nature of the vegetation cover. Thus, forests weaken the shock wave by 2 times or more, reduce the effect of light radiation by 6-8 times, and also reduce the level of radiation by 2 to 3 times compared to open areas.
Orientation conditions are terrain properties that help determine its location and the desired direction of movement relative to the sides of the horizon, surrounding terrain objects, as well as relative to the location of friendly and enemy troops. They are determined by the presence on the ground of characteristic relief elements and local objects, which clearly stand out from other objects in their appearance or position and are convenient for use as landmarks.
Observation conditions are the properties of the terrain that contribute to obtaining information about the enemy. They are determined by the degree of visibility of the surrounding area, the viewing range and depend on the nature of the relief, vegetation cover, the presence of settlements and other objects that impede the view of the area.
The camouflaging properties of the terrain are the properties of the terrain that make it possible to hide the location and movement of personnel and military equipment from the enemy. They are determined by the presence of natural shelters formed by landforms, vegetation cover, settlements and other local objects, as well as by the general character, color and patchiness of the area (the more varied the colors, the better the camouflage conditions).
Rough terrain with forests and numerous settlements has good masking properties. So, hollows "ravines, ravines create favorable conditions for the shelter of the unit.
... The most convenient natural shelters for units are forests. Their masking properties are determined mainly by the height of the trees, the closeness of the crowns, the composition of the rocks and the presence of undergrowth. The possibilities of camouflaging personnel and military equipment, depending on the density of the forest, are given in Table. 1.4.

Table 1.4

The conditions of firing are the properties of the terrain that provide a convenient and hidden from enemy observation the location of fire weapons, accurate fire from small arms, guns, tanks, anti-tank weapons, mortars, as well as correcting firing. They depend on the nature of the relief, vegetation cover, the availability of roads, settlements and other local items.
When determining the conditions for firing, they establish areas of the terrain that are not shot through by small arms and anti-tank weapons in the location of the enemy and their subunits, choose the most advantageous positions for firing from small arms and other fire weapons.
The conditions for the engineering equipment of the area depend on the type of soil, the level of groundwater, the availability of building materials, as well as the nature of natural and artificial shelters and obstacles. The condition of the soil largely determines the scope of work on the preparation of column tracks, equipping the main and reserve firing positions of artillery, on a fragment of trenches, trenches, shelters for guns, tanks, infantry fighting vehicles and other military equipment, erecting structures at command posts, shelters for personnel , technical means and objects of the rear. The presence of building materials on the ground (forests, crushed stone, gravel, sand, etc.) determines the volume and timing of engineering work. The possibility of preparing water supply points and building various structures depends on the depth of the groundwater.

Ways to study the area

Studying and assessing the terrain when making a decision is an understanding of the nature of its elements and their influence on the location and actions of their own and enemy subunits. In the conclusions from the terrain assessment, the commander establishes to what extent it affects the fulfillment of the assigned task, and determines the measures that must be taken in order to make the most of the terrain conditions.
Motorized rifle, tank, artillery, engineering and other subunits depend on the terrain in different ways, present their requirements to it in terms of cross-country ability, camouflage, observation, firing, etc. Therefore, the commanders of different subunits study and evaluate the same terrain elements. from different points of view, while solving the problem of the possibility and methods of using their combat assets in the given conditions.

The main sources for obtaining terrain data are as follows:

personal inspection of the terrain (reconnaissance, reconnaissance) - the commander directly examines and evaluates the terrain when organizing a battle. Disadvantage - it takes a lot of time for a detailed study of the entire area of operations of subunits, the ability to study the terrain at night, as well as in the depths of the enemy's defense, is limited;
topographic map - the main source of information about the area in modern combat.
The map allows you to quickly explore the area on large area... The disadvantage is the aging of the card;
aerial photographs (photographic documents) and special maps are used in addition to topographic maps, and in their absence - as independent documents for the study of the area. The disadvantage is the difficulty of reading a photographic image of terrain elements;
description of the area (information about the area) -. contains information about terrain passability, river regime, climatic features and some other data. Disadvantage - it takes a lot of time to select the necessary information and transfer it to the cards;
interrogation of local residents and interrogation of prisoners - allows you to get data on the terrain passability, its engineering equipment, as well as about the planned actions of the enemy to flood the area and destroy it.
Disadvantage - information is fragmentary, poorly linked to the map and requires verification; forecasting terrain changes - used in the study of terrain in areas of nuclear strikes.

When studying the terrain, first determine the type of terrain, its features and basic tactical properties. After that, the tactical properties of the sections and individual elements of the terrain are studied and evaluated in detail. The results of the study and assessment of the terrain are analyzed together with other elements of the situation, as a result of which conclusions are drawn.

CHAPTER 2

Orientation tasks

The organization and conduct of hostilities are inextricably linked with orientation on the ground. It is necessary when setting combat missions to subunits and fire weapons, maintaining the direction of action, target designation, plotting the results of enemy and terrain reconnaissance on a working map, and commanding subunits during a battle. Loss of orientation in battle can lead to failure to fulfill a combat mission and unjustified losses of personnel and equipment. Therefore, the ability to quickly and accurately navigate the terrain in any conditions is one of the most important elements of the field training of officers.
Orienteering on the ground on a map using a magnetic compass is the main and most widely used method of orientation. Although modern navigation equipment plays an ever-increasing role, it is impossible to effectively use this equipment without a topographic map. Based on the map, initial data are prepared for working with this equipment, and the progress along the route is monitored.
Thus, the topographic map was and remains the commander's reliable guide to unfamiliar terrain. The knowledge and skills in navigating the map, consolidated by experience, help to more confidently and successfully perform combat missions in various conditions of a combat situation.
Orientation on the terrain consists in determining directions to the sides of the horizon and its location, relative to surrounding local objects and landforms and in maintaining a given or selected route of movement, as well as in determining the location of landmarks on the ground, the lines of its troops and enemy troops, engineering structures and others. objects.
Local objects and landforms, relative to which they determine their location, the position of targets (objects) and indicate the direction of movement, are called landmarks... They are usually distinguished by their shape, color, and are easily recognized when surveying the surrounding area.
Landmarks are subdivided into areal, linear and point.
Areal landmarks occupy a large area. These include settlements, lakes, swamps, large tracts of forests, etc. They are easily recognized and remembered when studying the area.
Linear landmarks are local objects and landforms that have great length with their relatively small width, for example: roads, rivers, canals, power lines, narrow hollows, etc. They are used most often to maintain the direction of travel.
Point landmarks - tower-type buildings, road crossings, bridges, overpasses, pipes of factories and plants, peaks of mountain peaks, pits and other local objects occupying a small area. They are usually used to accurately determine their location, the position of targets, indicate sectors (bands) of fire, observation.
When choosing landmarks, it is necessary to take into account the conditions in which the units will operate on the ground.
Terrain orientation can be general and detailed (precise).
General orientation consists in the approximate determination of its location, direction of movement and the time required to reach the final destination of the route. Such orientation is most often carried out by the commanders of small units according to pre-drawn schemes or lists of settlements and other landmarks along the route.
Detailed orientation is to accurately determine your location and direction of movement on the map. Commanders who have maps or aerial photographs, in a combat situation, always carry out detailed orientation, which allows them to carry out accurate target designation and control subunits and fire,
When orienting on the terrain, it is important to be able to quickly and accurately determine the sides of the horizon, measure the distance to landmarks and the angles of directions on them on the ground and on the map, and prepare data on the map for movement in azimuths.

Data preparation and movement in azimuths

Azimuth movement is the main way to navigate in areas with poor landmarks, especially at night and with limited visibility. Its essence lies in maintaining on the ground the directions given by the magnetic azimuths and the distances determined on the map between the turning points of the planned route. Directions of movement are maintained using a magnetic compass or gyro-compass, distances are measured in steps or using a speedometer.
The initial data for movement in azimuths (magnetic azimuths and distances) is determined from the map, and the time of movement is according to the standard and is drawn up in the form of a diagram or entered into a table. The data in this form is given to the commanders of the crews who do not have topographic maps. If the commander has his own working map, then the initial data for movement in azimuths is drawn up directly on the working map.
The route of movement in azimuths is chosen taking into account the terrain passability, its protective and camouflaging properties, so that it provides a quick and covert exit to the specified point in a combat situation. The route usually includes roads, clearings, and other linear landmarks that make it easier to follow the direction of travel. Turning points are chosen at landmarks that are easily recognizable on the ground (for example, tower-type buildings, road intersections, bridges, overpasses, geodetic points, etc.).
It has been experimentally established that the distance between the landmarks at the turning points of the route should not exceed 1 km when driving in the daytime on foot, and when driving by car and maintaining directions along the gyro-compass - 6-10 km. For movement at night, landmarks are outlined along the route more often.
To provide a covert exit to the specified point, the route is planned along the ravines, vegetation massifs and other objects that provide camouflage of movement. It is necessary to avoid movement on the crests of hills and open areas... An approximate route selection option is shown in Fig. 3.2.
The distances between the landmarks selected on the route of movement at turning points are measured along straight lines using a compass-meter and a linear scale or, possibly, more precisely, a ruler with millimeter divisions. If the route is planned for hilly (mountainous) terrain, then a relief correction is introduced into the distances measured on the map.
Definition magnetic the azimuths of the directions of movement along the route between the turning points is the most difficult and crucial stage of the work, since even a small error in the azimuth leads to a deviation from the turning point on the ground.
The relationship between magnetic azimuth, directional angle and geodetic azimuth is shown in Fig. 3.3.
The angle between the north direction of the geodesic meridian (the vertical side of the map frame) and the vertical line of the coordinate grid is called the convergence meridians(y). To the right of the geodesic meridian, the approach is positive (east), and to the left is negative (west). On topographic maps of the USSR, the value of the convergence of the meridians does not exceed ± 3 °.
The convergence of meridians, indicated on topographic maps, refers to the middle (central) point of the sheet; its value within a sheet of a 1: 100,000 scale map at middle latitudes near the western or eastern frame may differ by 10-15 "from the value indicated on the map.

The angle between the north direction of the geodesic meridian and the direction of the magnetic meridian (the north end of the magnetic needle) is called magnetic declination(b). If the north end of the magnetic needle deviates from the geodesic meridian to the east, the magnetic declination is considered positive, and to the west - negative.
Magnetic declination is subject to daily, annual and secular fluctuations, as well as temporary disturbances caused by magnetic storms. Annual changes in magnetic declination are indicated on each sheet of the topographic map. Daily fluctuations reach 0-04.
The angle between the north direction of the vertical grid line and the magnetic meridian called direction correction(PN), it is equal to the algebraic difference between the magnetic declination and the convergence of the meridians:

PN = (± b) - (± y).

The transition from the directional angles (geodetic azimuths) measured on the map to magnetic azimuths when preparing the initial data for movement is performed according to the formulas:

Am = a - (± PN);
Am = A - (± b).

Directional angles of directions to local objects (landmarks) are measured on the map with a protractor or an artillery circle. They provide a measurement accuracy of ± 1 °. For a more accurate measurement of angles, a chordouglometer is used.
When moving along the azimuths at each turning point of the route, starting from the initial one, they find the required direction of the path on the terrain using the compass and move along it, measuring the distance traveled using the speedometer or in steps. In order to more accurately maintain the direction of movement, some intermediate landmark is chosen on it between the turning points; having reached it, they outline the next intermediate point and continue to move. It is also convenient to use auxiliary landmarks (Sun, Moon, constellations, individual mountain peaks), which are visible from all points of the route. When using the luminaries as auxiliary landmarks, check the direction of movement with a compass every 15-20 minutes, since the celestial bodies shift by 15 ° in 1 hour. If you move in their direction for a long time without control, you can significantly deviate from the route.

Requirements for topographic orientation

In a combat situation, commanders are required not only to be able to quickly and accurately navigate the terrain themselves, but also to provide orientation for the personnel of subordinate units.
Topographic orientation precedes tactical orientation and is an important primary stage in the commander's work in organizing combat operations on the ground. Topographic orientation helps subordinates quickly and correctly understand the location of landmarks, targets, lines and their combat missions.
Orienting the commanders of subordinate and attached units on reconnaissance, they first announce the time, point to the terrain on the side of the horizon in the direction of action or to the north on some local subject, call the square of the map coordinate grid in which they are, indicate their point of position relative to the nearest landmark indicated on the map. Then they indicate the directions to the surrounding local objects within a radius of 10-15 km (observed and unobserved) and the distance to them. Directions are indicated relative to their position, facing the enemy (to the right, directly, to the left or on the sides of the horizon), time - local or operational, uncoded name of objects - on the map. After that, landmarks are assigned from right to left and in the direction of the enemy and show on the ground the line of contact between their troops and enemy troops or the lines to which their subunits and enemy troops have reached.
Selection and use of landmarks. Well-observed local objects and landforms are chosen as landmarks. The number of landmarks should be small (4-7). One of the landmarks is usually assigned in the direction of the offensive or in the center of the strip. All landmarks assigned by the senior commander are mandatory for subordinates, their numbers do not change. In the course of the offensive, as we move forward, new landmarks are chosen. For the convenience of memorizing and searching on the ground, landmarks are usually assigned conventional names.
During operations at night, in the desert and other conditions difficult to navigate, by means of the senior commander, art is staged
military landmarks and designation of routes of movement with special signs. Under favorable weather conditions, the direction of action of the subunits is indicated by the alignments of torches of glowing bombs, periodic switching on of searchlights, firing tracer shells (bullets), and in some cases by the creation of fires in the depths of the enemy's defense.
In battle, when commands are transmitted by radio, the numbers of landmarks and the conventional names of local objects are transmitted in clear text. Other terrain objects and targets are also indicated in relation to landmarks.
In conditions difficult for orientation, unit commanders use specially trained soldiers (azimuths) to maintain the direction of movement by units. During the battle, the azimuths are with the commanders and monitor the direction of the offensive (march) and the location of their subunits.

CHAPTER 3

Table 19

d) Determination of distances by rectangular coordinates

The distance D in a straight line between points with known rectangular coordinates, given in one system, can most accurately be determined by the formula:

D = V (X2-X1) 2 + (Y2-Y1) 2

where
X1, Y1 - coordinates of the starting point;
X2, Y2 - coordinates of the end point.

MEASURING ANGLES ON THE MAP

a) Measurement of angles with a protractor (artillery celluloid circle)

When measuring angles on a map, the center of the protractor is aligned with the apex of the corner, and the base line of the protractor is aligned with one of the sides of the corner; the reading of the angle (in degrees) is taken against its second side.
The value of the angle in divisions of the protractor is determined by a similar technique using an artillery celluloid circle.

3.2. Determination of the height of a point, direction and steepness of the slope from the map

a) Determination of absolute heights and relative elevations of points

The absolute height H of a point on the earth's surface on the map is determined by horizontals and elevations. If the point is located on the horizontal, then its height is equal to the horizontal elevation. If the point is located between the contours, then its height is equal to the elevation of the lower contour plus the point's elevation (determined by interpolation) above this contour.
The relative elevation of two points is equal to the difference in the absolute heights of these points.

b) Determining the direction of the slope

The direction of lowering the slope is determined by the following criteria:

on reservoirs (rivers, lakes) - lowering the slope towards the reservoir;
according to the slope direction indicators - the stroke is directed downward;
by the position of the signatures of the contour lines - the numbers are signed with the base downward;
by point elevations - lowering towards a lower elevation.

c) Determination of the steepness of the slope

The basic formula for determining the steepness of the slope:

tg a = h: d

a is the steepness of the slope;
h - slope height (relative excess of the upper and lower slope bends);
d - slope placement (distance in plan between the upper and lower slope bends).

Building a profile from a map

It is most convenient to build a profile on graph paper, and in its absence, on ordinary checkered paper.
A profile line is drawn on the map, then the heights of the contour lines and points of inflection of the slopes along the profile line are set and signed. In this case, labels can be made only at the inflection points and on some contours - to facilitate the determination of heights. Having determined the difference in heights, the vertical scale of the profile is selected. The vertical scale is usually taken 10 times larger than the horizontal one. A base line is drawn on graph paper and, in accordance with the accepted vertical scale, a number of parallel horizontal lines are drawn over it, corresponding to the height of the contour lines (through one, through two). In the future, by attaching paper to the profile line AB on the map, the start and end points are projected (transferred along the perpendiculars) to it, as well as all the horizontal lines and points of inflection of the slopes in accordance with the value of their height. The resulting points are connected by a smooth curve.
To solve problems of determining visibility, a so-called abbreviated profile is built. In this case, only the inflection points of the slopes are strictly transferred to the profile. To determine visibility, all local objects (taking into account their height) that limit visibility (forests, buildings, etc.) are transferred to the profile.

3.4. Determination of rectangular coordinates of a point from a map

a) Determination of rectangular coordinates using a compass (ruler)

To determine the coordinates along the X axis (abscissas), measure with a compass or a ruler along the perpendicular the segment from a given point (target) to the kilometer line below. To the resulting value, expressed in meters, the digitization of the kilometer line is attributed to the left.

A similar method is used to determine the coordinate along the Y axis (ordinate), that is, the segment from the target to the kilometer line passing on the left is measured along the perpendicular, and the digitization of this kilometer line is attributed to the obtained value (in meters) on the left (Fig. 37).

b) Determination of rectangular coordinates using a coordinate meter

A coordinate gauge is placed on the square in which the target is located so that one of its scale coincides with the bottom side of the square, and the coordinate gauge is moved along this line until the second scale coincides with the target. At this position of the coordinate meter, readings are taken. Readout on the vertical scale corresponds to a segment along the X axis, and to a reading on a horizontal scale, a segment along the Y axis.

CHAPTER 4

Road reconnaissance

Key issues for road exploration:

type (class) of roads, their surface, condition, width of the carriageway and the entire roadbed;
hard-to-pass places for wheeled and tracked vehicles, etc. the possibility of making detours;
condition and carrying capacity of bridges, presence and dimensions of pipes;
data on overpasses over roads (passages under overpasses);
the ability to move off-road;
defile and ways to bypass them;
the presence of natural shelters near roads from an air attack and enemy nuclear strikes;
conditions for camouflage and positioning for halts;
water supply sources;
availability of local repair materials (sand, gravel, slag, timber);
the required amount of work and funds for the repair of roads, equipment of column tracks, fords and other crossings;
average speed of movement on sections;
orientation conditions.

The reconnaissance results are plotted on the map with conventional symbols. Additional characteristics are given in the textual legend-help placed on the map or attached to it.
In the absence of large-scale maps and the need to obtain detailed data on the route, the results of reconnaissance in the process of its conduct are drawn up in the form of a diagram with text and digital explanations.

Exploration of rivers

When exploring the river, the following are determined:

the width, depth and speed of the river flow, the nature of the banks, the steepness of the entrances and exits, the bottom and bank soil, the presence and nature of fords, islands and shoals;
places convenient for crossing tanks under water along the bottom of the river;
approaches to the ferry and places for the concealed location of ferry means and crossing troops;
availability of local ferry facilities and scrap materials;
the nature and scope of work required to prepare the crossing.

In the course of reconnaissance, a large-scale scheme (crocs) of the crossing is drawn up, or the data is recorded on a large-scale map with the corresponding conventional symbols and text in the legend, i.e., a map of the water line is created.
In winter, the ice cover of the river is examined: the thickness and structure of the ice (the absence of snow, water and air layers), the presence and nature of polynyas, erosion.

Reconnaissance of bridges

During reconnaissance of the bridge, the following are established:

general information about a water obstacle (width, depth, bottom and bank soil, condition of access roads, presence and location of detours);
general information about the bridge (length, width of the carriageway, span size, type and height of supports), condition of the bridge-site and nature of destruction, places of possible mining, degree of decay and wear;
information about the elements of a wooden bridge to determine its carrying capacity (material and thickness of the crossbars, the thickness of the girders and the distance between them, the thickness of the piles and their height from the ground);
the carrying capacity of the bridge (determined by the sign at the bridge, the formula below or special tables given in the engineering manuals);
a method of strengthening the bridge (if necessary) for the passage of specified loads;
availability of materials for repair and strengthening of the bridge (what materials, where and how much are available).

The reconnaissance data is drawn up on a separate drawing or recorded on a map with a sketch of the longitudinal section of the bridge.
The carrying capacity of the main types of bridges. Reinforced concrete, concrete and stone bridges, metal bridges with end-to-end trusses or with spans of riveted beams with a solid wall, bridges with main trusses with a span of more than 30 m, wooden girder and strut bridges located on highways and improved highways, as a rule, provide passage of tracked vehicles weighing up to 60 tons.
The formula for the approximate determination of the carrying capacity of wooden beam, strut-braced and transom-strut-braced bridges for tracked vehicles

G = (0.0006 x d3 x n): (l - (L: 2))

where
G-load capacity of the bridge, g (weight of the tracked vehicle);
d is the diameter of the runs, cm;
n is the number of runs;
l is the length of the bridge span, m;
L is the length of the supporting surface of the tank track, m.

When determining the carrying capacity of bridges, the span of the strut-braced bridge is considered equal to 50%, and of the transom-strut-brace-40% of the distance between the supports.

Forest exploration

During forest exploration, the following are determined (specified):

the boundaries of the forest (edges);
the nature of the forest - species, age, layering, height, thickness of trees at chest height, density (average distance between trees), forest debris, visibility conditions, forest masking properties, presence of clearings, burnt areas;
road network;
terrain, especially ravines, precipices, pits, steep slopes;
rivers, streams, ditches, wetlands;
directions of possible off-road traffic;
local items that can serve as landmarks. Reconnaissance data is captured on a diagram or large-scale map.

To determine the average distance between trees, a typical of this forest a plot of 10x10 m and the number of trees on it is counted. The average distance between trees is determined by the formula:

l = 10: Vn

where
l - average distance, m;
n is the number of trees in an area of 100 m3.

The visibility conditions are expressed by the average visual distance in the forest in meters.

Swamp scouting

During exploration, swamps are identified (specified);

swamp boundaries (outline);
the depth of the swamp by areas;
the nature of the bog: peaty, boggy, wetlands;
number of hollows (percentage of the total area);
the nature of the surface: hummocks, ridges, hillocks, places of peat extraction;
vegetation cover: areas covered with forest, moss, grass, shrubs;
the presence of rivers, lakes, ditches;
the presence of roads, trails;
the passability of the swamp off-road, the places of the passages, the necessary measures for their equipment;
main landmarks.

The passability of swamps is determined by their type or by direct measurement of depth to solid ground using a pole
The passability of a continuous peat bog can be determined by the simplest field methods.

The nature of the swamp	Method for determining the passability of a swamp	Allowable pressure, kg / sec. I 2	Possibility of movement
Peat is very dense, drained or slightly moistened	When peat is squeezed in the hand, a decrease in its volume is not felt; no water is released	1,0	Tanks
Peat dense, medium moisture	When squeezed in the hand, a slight decrease in volume is noticeable; water is released, but does not drain from the hand, the mass does not squeeze through the fingers	0,75	Tanks
Loose peat, moist	When squeezed in the hand, a significant decrease in volume is noticeable; water is released in drops; peat is squeezed through fingers	0,50	Tractors
Peat is very loose, highly moistened	When peat is squeezed in the hand, water flows out in a trickle, the mass is pressed through the fingers	0,25	Pedestrians
Peat flowing, liquid	The mass is completely pressed through the fingers	0,12 - 0,14	Impassable

Marsh reconnaissance data is recorded on a large-scale topographic map or on a specially compiled diagram.

Exploration of soils and grounds

Exploration of soils and grounds is carried out from the point of view of their permeability, the difficulty of development, radioactive contamination (induced radiation) and dust formation.
When reconnaissance is determined:

soils (tundra, podzolic, chernozem, chestnut, serozem, salt marshes, salt licks);
the quality of the soil by the difficulty of development - light, heavy, stony, rock, quicksand;
the nature of the soil by the content of clay particles - sandy, sandy loam, loamy, clayey

Exploring the route

The process of learning a route includes three main stages:

familiarization with the general nature of the terrain in the direction of the route;
selection of a route (if it is not specified by a superior manager), ascent (designation) on the map and measurement of its length with appropriate registration;
detailed study of the route and determination of the average speed of movement on the sections.

The route rises on the map by drawing a thickened solid or dashed (in links up to 1 cm) line along the road (column path), clearly visible against the background of the map. The color for the ascent of the route is often chosen brown (on the maps of mountainous areas with a large number of brown contours, it is more expedient to use a different color). The ascent line is drawn next to the road in order to preserve conventional sign the latter, and is necessarily torn apart on bridges and other objects that are important when making a march from the point of view of orientation and pro

Terrain is one of the elements of the combat situation. Without careful assessment, it is impossible to make an informed decision. Therefore, even in those conditions when time is very limited, the commander is obliged to assess the influence of the terrain on the performance of the assigned task, to use all protective and other favorable factors to achieve success in battle.

The oncoming battle was going on with full tension. Its participants tried to forestall each other in seizing the initiative, in capturing an advantageous tactical line. Late in the evening, the opposing sides went on the defensive. But the rivals were not idle. They conducted reconnaissance, assessed the current situation, preparing to resume active operations at dawn. Cargoes with food were sent to the rear.

The commander of the "northern" was pleased with the development of events. By the time of the pause that arose, the subunit he commanded had managed to seize the advantageous line and held the initiative in its hands.

The commander of the opposing unit had to find a way out of this situation. By the light of the flashlight, he studied the map carefully. After a long reflection, finally, as if refuting someone's opinion, he said:

Let's see, we'll see ... It seems there is still a way out ...

The position of the company was very difficult, if not hopeless. However, when the company commander reported the decision to the assistant leader of the exercise, this opinion was shaken. The decision, although it seemed risky, opened up hopes for success.

What was it? The commander of the "southern" decided to hold a demonstration of the offensive at dawn. Then, as if under the onslaught of the "enemy", start a retreat, limiting ourselves to active actions only on the main road, since the terrain was swampy on the right and left. During the retreat, it was envisaged to hide two platoons unnoticed on the right side of the road. The third platoon, continuing to retreat, crossed the canal over the bridge and blew it up. The pursuing "enemy" will definitely stop at the water line. And here the platoon bottoms, previously hidden to the right of the road, will come into play. One of the peaks should, with a blow to the flank, deprive the “enemy” of the opportunity to maneuver, the other should be ready to slam the “trap” in case the “northern” ones try to turn back.

There is no trap here, - objected the assistant leader of the exercise. The Northmen will turn to the left of the road and slip out of your firing bag.

That's the secret, - explained the company commander, - that at a cursory glance at the map, the terrain seems to be the same, but both sides of the road. Meanwhile, on the right, it allows us to cover our platoons, and on the left, it is generally impassable. Consider also that it rained ...

The judgments of the commander of the "southern" sounded conclusive, and yet worried about the outcome of the battle, which began at dawn. Of particular concern were two forthcoming maneuvers: the "forced" withdrawal of the company, which was supposed to lull the vigilance of the "enemy", and the actions of two platoons located in a rare forest in a swamp, to the right of the road. But the alarm here was in vain. In both cases, the commander of the "southern" successfully used smoke grenades, misled the "enemy" about his plan, and successfully carried it out, winning the battle.

During the analysis, the head of the exercise rightly noted that good topographic training helped the commander of the "southern" in many ways to win this difficult battle against a sufficiently trained commander, who, moreover, kept the initiative in his hands. After the exercise, talking with the commander of the "southern", they asked what prompted him to the original decision.

Past mistakes of my own made me think about it, ”he said. - While still in school, I twice found myself in the role of the "defeated" because of poor topographic training. Further developing his thought, he said that now he understands well that the area can be your ally, if you skillfully use it, and maybe your opponent, if you do not take into account all its features. Therefore, in any training battle, he seeks to carefully assess the terrain and its impact on fighting... Correct and mature thought. Without a thorough assessment of the terrain, it is impossible to make an informed decision. You should always strive to benefit from the benefits, if any, or to reduce the impact of negative terrain factors that make it difficult to complete the task. As for the enemy, it is important to force him to act in unfavorable conditions.

Unfortunately, not all officers take into account the tactical characteristics of the terrain; its protective properties against nuclear weapons, against the effects of aviation, artillery, etc. They sometimes do not use terrain features to camouflage search, do not take into account their influence on observation and firing, on orientation. Sometimes the relief n is not taken into account as a factor that has a significant impact on radio communication

In the exercises, you can find miscalculations of this order. Some commanders forget that the tactical properties of the terrain change depending on the weather, time of day and year. Here is a fact that took place during the winter period of study. A motorized rifle company, raised by alarm, entered the battle from the march and successfully developed the offensive. In the depths of the “enemy's” defense, the motorized rifle met stubborn resistance. Having studied the situation, the company commander made sure that an attack from the front would not break through the "enemy's" defenses. And he decided to make a detour with two platoons in order to strike at the "enemy" from the rear.

But this plan was never implemented. At the appointed time, there was no attack from the rear. The "enemy", having established with the help of reconnaissance that there was only one platoon in front of him, he himself went over to active actions and defeated the platoon.

The other two, sent around, were unable to help him. The armored personnel carriers got stuck. Choosing a route to bypass, the commander made a mistake - he did not take into account the terrain, the depth of the snow cover. From all that has been said, an important practical conclusion suggests itself; in order to successfully solve combat missions, commanders must constantly learn to skillfully assess the terrain, use its tactical properties, have a good knowledge of military topography, work with a map, and quickly draw up various graphic documents and terrain diagrams. To acquire such skills, there are ample opportunities in conducting tactical exercises and exercises, command and staff training.

And a lot here depends on the commanders who are in charge of the classes, exercises, trainings. The choice of terrain, and it is desirable that it be with a difficult terrain, various introductions associated with its competent use - all this significantly affects the level of the officer's topographic training. Reconnaissance of the area in various ways is of great importance. The purpose of this reconnaissance is in each case determined by the nature of the task at hand. For example, in anticipation of the march, it is important to study the route well, to obtain data on the quality and condition of roads, bridges, oh possible ways off-road traffic, on the conditions of camouflage and orientation on the route. When preparing for an offensive battle, it is necessary first of all to reconnoiter favorable approaches to the enemy, ensuring the secrecy of the approach and maximum cover from fire, etc.

When organizing defense, the task of identifying favorable terrain conditions for creating a system of fire, observation, as well as the possibility of maneuver and interaction is put forward. All these and other questions are assimilated faster if they are worked out carefully, in detail, if the fight against indulgences and oversimplification is being conducted. Only under this condition will the manager ‘be guaranteed that the subordinates he trains will get a real idea of the complexity and versatility of work on the study, assessment of the terrain, and the use of all features.

In this sense, the study of front-line experience can give a lot. Frontline commanders, when deciding on a battle, always assessed the terrain in detail, This is confirmed by numerous examples. One of them is cited, in particular, in the book of General of the Army P. Batov "In campaigns and battles." He talks about the events near Bobruisk in the summer of 1944. In the Parichi area, the Nazis strongly strengthened their defenses. The enemy had commanding heights, high density of fire. An attempt to break through in this area could lead to large losses. The rest of the defense area, including the swamps, was, in the enemy's opinion, impassable for the Soviet troops.

Meanwhile, engineering reconnaissance helped our command to make sure that not only the infantry could pass through these swamps, but during the construction of gates and Combat vehicles... And so it happened. Lacking reserves behind the swamps, the Nazis were unable to resist our offensive. With minimal losses, the impregnable, as the Nazis believed, defensive line near Bobruisk was crushed. Frontline experience is our invaluable asset. In particular, he teaches that good topographic training, the ability to use terrain properties correctly is an important facet of commanding skill. Therefore, it is imperative that each tactical exercise and exercise broadens the officer's horizons in this area.

The study and assessment of the area are two organically linked sides of a single process. The terrain must be assessed not only for oneself, but also for the enemy, in order to foresee the possible locations of his observation posts, defensive structures, firing positions, obstacles, as well as the probable methods of his actions.

Experience shows that when correct use terrain increase the striking force of the subunit in the offensive and stability in defense. If earlier the principle of adaptation to it was put in the basis of the study of the terrain, now it is studied with the aim of changing its tactical properties. Modern engineering technology makes it possible to change the tactical properties of the terrain over a large territory in a short time. The terrain accessible for the actions of all types of troops can be made difficult to access by equipping anti-tank, mine-explosive barriers, counter-escarps, etc., as well as creating flooded areas and areas of destruction.

Hard-to-reach terrain can be made passable for all types of military equipment.

Deep study of the terrain, thoughtful use of its properties ensure success in battle.